What can be cooked from squid: quick and tasty

Russians take a long time to harness, but travel fast

Winston Churchill

USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics), this form of statehood replaced the Russian Empire. The country began to be ruled by the proletariat, which achieved this right by accomplishing the October Revolution, which was nothing more than an armed coup within the country, which was bogged down in its internal and external problems. An important role in this state of affairs was played by Nicholas II, who actually drove the country into a state of collapse.

Country education

The formation of the USSR took place on November 7, 1917 in a new style. It was on this day that the October Revolution took place, which overthrew the Provisional Government and the fruits of the February Revolution, proclaiming the slogan that power should belong to the workers. This is how the USSR, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was formed. It is extremely difficult to unequivocally assess the Soviet period in the history of Russia, since it was very contradictory. Without a doubt, we can say that at this time there were both positive and negative moments.

Capital Cities

Initially, the capital of the USSR was Petrograd, in which, in fact, the revolution took place, which brought the Bolsheviks to power. At first, there was no question of transferring the capital, since the new government was too weak, but later this decision was made. As a result, the capital of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was moved to Moscow. This is quite symbolic, since the creation of the Empire was due to the transfer of the capital to Petrograd from Moscow.

The fact of transferring the capital to Moscow today is associated with the economy, politics, symbolism and many others. In fact, everything is much simpler. By moving the capital, the Bolsheviks saved themselves from other contenders for power during the civil war.

Country leaders

The foundations of the power and prosperity of the USSR are associated with the fact that the country had relative stability in its leadership. There was a clear single line of the party, and the leaders who had been at the head of the state for a long time. It is interesting that the closer the country came to collapse, the more often the General Secs changed. At the beginning of the 80s, a leapfrog began altogether: Andropov, Ustinov, Chernenko, Gorbachev - the country did not have time to get used to one leader, as another turned out to be in his place.

The general list of managers is as follows:

• Lenin. Leader of the world proletariat. One of the ideological inspirers and implementers of the October revolution. He laid the foundations of the state.
• Stalin. One of the most controversial historical figures. With all the negativity that the liberal press pours against this man, the fact is that Stalin raised industry from his knees, Stalin prepared the USSR for war, Stalin began to actively develop the socialist state.
• Khrushchev. He gained power after the assassination of Stalin, developed the country and was able to adequately resist the United States in the Cold War.
• Brezhnev. The era of his reign is called the era of stagnation. Many people mistakenly associate this with the economy, but there was no stagnation there - all indicators were growing. There was stagnation in the party, which was decaying.
• Andropov, Chernenko. They didn’t really do anything, pushing the country towards collapse.
• Gorbachev. The first and last president of the USSR. Today they hang all the dogs on him, accusing him of the collapse of the Soviet Union, but his main fault was that he was afraid to take active actions against Yeltsin and his supporters, who actually staged a conspiracy and a coup d'etat.

Another fact is also interesting - the best rulers were those who found the time of revolution and war. The same applies to party leaders. These people understood the value of the socialist state, the importance and complexity of its existence. As soon as people came to power, who neither the war, let alone the revolution, did not see - everything went to dust.

Formation and achievements

The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics began its formation with the Red Terror. This is a sad page in the history of Russia, a huge number of people were killed by the Bolsheviks, who were trying to strengthen their power. The leaders of the Bolshevik Party, realizing that they could keep power only by force, killed everyone who could somehow interfere with the formation of the new regime. It is outrageous that the Bolsheviks, as the first people's commissars and the people's police, i.e. those people who were supposed to keep order were recruited by thieves, murderers, homeless people, etc. In a word, all those who were disliked in the Russian Empire and tried in every possible way to take revenge on everyone who was somehow connected with it. The culmination of these atrocities was the murder of the royal family.

After the formation of a new system, the USSR, headed until 1924 Lenin V.I., got a new leader. It became Joseph Stalin... His rule was made possible after he won a power struggle from Trotsky... During the reign of Stalin, industry and agriculture began to develop at a tremendous pace. Knowing about the growing power of Hitlerite Germany, Stalin pays great attention to the development of the country's defense complex. In the period from June 22, 1941 to May 9, 1945, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was involved in a bloody war with Germany, from which it emerged victorious. Great Patriotic War cost the Soviet state millions of lives, but this was the only way to preserve the country's freedom and independence. The post-war years were difficult for the country: hunger, poverty and rampant banditry. Stalin brought order to the country with a firm hand.

International position

After Stalin's death and until the collapse of the USSR, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics developed dynamically, overcoming a huge number of difficulties and obstacles. The USSR was involved by the United States in an arms race that continues to this day. It was this race that could become fatal for all of humanity, since both countries were in constant confrontation as a result. This period of history is called the Cold War. Only the prudence of the leadership of both countries managed to keep the planet from a new war. And this war, given that both nations were already nuclear at that time, could become fatal for the whole world.

The country's space program stands apart from the entire development of the USSR. It was the Soviet citizen who first flew into space. It was Yuri Alekseevich Gagarin. The United States responded to this manned space flight with its first manned flight to the moon. But the Soviet space flight, unlike the American flight to the moon, does not raise so many questions, and experts have not a shadow of a doubt that this flight really took place.

Population of the country

Every decade the Soviet country showed a population growth. And this despite the multimillion-dollar victims of World War II. The guarantee of the increase in the birth rate was the social guarantees of the state. The diagram below shows data on the population of the USSR as a whole and the RSFSR in particular.

You should also pay attention to the dynamics of urban development. The Soviet Union was becoming an industrial, industrial country, the population of which gradually moved from the countryside to the cities.

By the time the USSR was formed, there were 2 cities with a million-plus population (Moscow and St. Petersburg) in Russia. By the time the country collapsed, there were already 12 such cities: Moscow, Leningrad, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod, Samara, Omsk, Kazan, Chelyabinsk, Rostov-on-Don, Ufa and Perm. The union republics also had cities with a million population: Kiev, Tashkent, Baku, Kharkov, Tbilisi, Yerevan, Dnepropetrovsk, Odessa, Donetsk.

USSR map

The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics collapsed in 1991, when the leaders of the Soviet republics announced their secession from the USSR in the White Forest. Thus, all the Republics gained independence and independence. The opinion of the Soviet people was not taken into account. The referendum held just before the collapse of the USSR showed that the overwhelming majority of people declared that the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics should be preserved. A handful of people, headed by the chairman of the CPSU Central Committee M. Gorbachev, decided the fate of the country and the people. It was this decision that plunged Russia into the harsh reality of the "nineties". This is how the Russian Federation was born. Below is a map of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

Economy

The economy of the USSR was unique. For the first time, the world was shown a system in which not profit, but public goods and employee incentives were at the forefront. In general, the economy of the Soviet Union can be divided into 3 stages:

1. Before Stalin. Here we are not talking about any economy - the revolution has just died out in the country, there is a war going on. Nobody seriously thought about economic development, the Bolsheviks retained power.
2. Stalinist model of the economy. Stalin realized the unique idea of ​​the economy, which made it possible to raise the USSR to the level of the leading countries of the world. The essence of his approach is total labor and the correct “pyramid of distribution of funds”. Correct distribution of funds - when workers receive no less than managers. Moreover, the basis of the salary was bonuses for achievement of results and bonuses for innovation. The essence of such bonuses is as follows - 90% were received by the employee himself, and 10% were divided between the brigade, shop, and chiefs. But the main money was received by the employee himself. Therefore, there was a desire to work.
3. After Stalin. After Stalin's death, Khrushchev turned the pyramid of the economy, after which a recession and a gradual decline in growth rates began. Under Khrushchev and after him, an almost capitalist model was formed, when leaders received much more workers, especially in the form of bonuses. Bonuses were now divided differently: 90% to the boss and 10% to everyone else.

The Soviet economy is unique because it was able to actually rise from the ashes after the civil war and revolution before the war, and this happened in just 10-12 years. So when economists today different countries and journalists insist that it is impossible to change the economy in 1 election term (5 years) - they simply do not know history. Stalin's two five-year plans turned the USSR into a modern power, which had a foundation for development. Moreover, the basis for all this was laid in 2-3 years of the first five-year plan.

I also suggest looking at the diagram below, which presents data on the average annual growth rate of the economy as a percentage. Everything we talked about above is reflected in this diagram.

Union republics

The new period of the country's development was due to the fact that several republics existed within the framework of a single state of the USSR. Thus, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics had the following composition: Russian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Byelorussian SSR, Moldavian SSR, Uzbek SSR, Kazakh SSR, Georgian SSR, Azerbaijan SSR, Lithuanian SSR, Latvian SSR, Kirghiz SSR, Tajik SSR, Armenian SSR, Turkmen SSR, Estonian SSR.

The years of existence of the USSR - 1922-1991. However, the history of the world's largest state began with the February Revolution, or more precisely, with the crisis of tsarist Russia. Since the beginning of the 20th century, opposition sentiments have roamed the country, which now and then poured into bloodshed.

The words spoken by Pushkin in the thirties of the XIX century were applicable in the past, and do not lose their relevance today. The Russian revolt is always merciless. Especially when it leads to the overthrow of the old regime. Let us recall the most important and tragic events that took place during the years of the existence of the USSR.

Background

In 1916 royal family was discredited by scandals around an odious personality, whose secret has not yet been fully solved. We are talking about Grigory Rasputin. Nicholas II made several mistakes, the first in the year of his coronation. But we will not talk about this today, but recall the events that preceded the creation of the Soviet state.

So, the First World War is in full swing. There are rumors in St. Petersburg. Rumor has it that the empress divorces her husband, goes to a monastery, and from time to time engages in espionage. Opposition to the Russian tsar is being formed. Its members, including the tsar's closest relatives, demanded that Rasputin be removed from the government.

While the princes were arguing with the tsar, a revolution was being prepared, which was supposed to change the course of world history. Armed rallies continued for several days in February. They ended with a coup d'état. A Provisional Government was formed, which did not last long.

Then there was the October Revolution, the Civil War. Historians divide the years of existence of the USSR into several periods. During the first, which lasted until 1953, a former revolutionary, known in narrow circles under the nickname Koba, was in power.

Stalin years (1922-1941)

By the end of 1922, six political figures were in power: Stalin, Trotsky, Zinoviev, Rykov, Kamenev, Tomsky. But one person should run the state. A struggle began between the former revolutionaries.

Neither Kamenev, nor Zinoviev, nor Tomsky felt sympathy for Trotsky. The People's Commissar for Military Affairs Stalin especially disliked. Dzhugashvili had a negative attitude towards him since the time of the Civil War. They say he did not like education, erudition who used to read the French classics in the original at political meetings. But, of course, that is not the point. There is no place for simple human sympathies and antipathies in the political struggle. The skirmish between the revolutionaries ended in Stalin's victory. In subsequent years, he methodically eliminated his other associates.

The Stalin years were marked by repressions. First there was compulsory collectivization, then arrests. How many people in this terrible time turned into camp dust, how many were shot? Hundreds of thousands of people. The peak of Stalin's repressions fell on 1937-1938.

The Great Patriotic War

During the years of the existence of the USSR, there were many tragic events. In 1941, a war broke out that claimed about 25 million lives. These losses are incomparable. Before Yuri Levitan announced on the radio about the attack of the German armed forces on no one believed that there was a ruler in the world who would not be afraid to direct his aggression towards the USSR.

WWII historians divide into three periods. The first begins on June 22, 1941 and ends with the Battle of Moscow, in which the Germans were defeated. The second ends with the Battle of Stalingrad. The third period is the expulsion of enemy troops from the USSR, liberation from the occupation of European countries and the surrender of Germany.

Stalinism (1945-1953)

Was not ready for war. When it began, it turned out that many military leaders had been shot, and those who were still alive were far away in the camps. They were immediately released, brought back to normal and sent to the front. The war is over. Several years passed, and a new wave of repression began, now among the highest command personnel.

Major military leaders close to Marshal Zhukov were arrested. Among them are Lieutenant General Telegin and Air Marshal Novikov. Zhukov himself was a little oppressed, but not particularly touched. His authority was too great. For the victims of the latest wave of repression, for those who survived in the camps, the year was the happiest day. The "leader" died, and with him the camps for political prisoners went down in history.

Thaw

In 1956, Khrushchev debunked Stalin's personality cult. At the top of the party he was supported. Indeed, over the years, even the most prominent political figure could at any moment find himself in disgrace, which means that he could be shot or sent to a camp. During the existence of the USSR, the years of the thaw were marked by the softening of the totalitarian regime. People went to bed and did not fear that in the middle of the night they would be picked up by the state security officers and taken to the Lubyanka, where they would have to confess to espionage, attempted murder of Stalin and other fictitious crimes. But denunciations and provocations still took place.

During the years of the thaw, the word "chekist" had a pronounced negative connotation. In fact, mistrust of the special services originated much earlier, back in the thirties. But the term "chekist" lost its official approval after the report made by Khrushchev in 1956.

The era of stagnation

This is not a historical term, but a propaganda-literary cliché. It appeared after Gorbachev's speech, in which he noted the emergence of stagnation in the economy and social life. The era of stagnation conditionally begins with the coming to power of Brezhnev and ends with the beginning of perestroika. One of the main problems of this period was the increase in the commodity deficit. Censorship rules in the world of culture. During the years of stagnation, the first terrorist acts took place in the USSR. During this period, there are several high-profile cases of the hijacking of passenger aircraft.

Afghan war

In 1979, a war broke out that lasted ten years. Over the years, more than thirteen thousand Soviet soldiers have died. But these data were released only in 1989. The biggest losses occurred in 1984. Against Afghan war Soviet dissidents were active. Andrei Sakharov was sent into exile for his pacifist speeches. The burial of zinc coffins was a secret matter. At least until 1987. On the soldier's grave it was impossible to indicate that he died in Afghanistan. The official date for the end of the war is February 15, 1989.

The last years of the USSR (1985-1991)

This period in the history of the Soviet Union is called perestroika. The last years of the existence of the USSR (1985-1991) can be briefly characterized as follows: a sharp change in ideology, political and economic life.

In May 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev, who by that time held the post of General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee for just over two months, uttered a significant phrase: "It's time for all of us, comrades, to rebuild." Hence the term. The media actively started talking about perestroika, and a dangerous desire for change arose in the minds of ordinary citizens. Historians divide the last years of the existence of the USSR into four stages:

1. 1985-1987. The beginning of the reform of the economic system.
2. 1987-1989. An attempt to rebuild the system in the spirit of socialism.
3. 1989-1991. Destabilization of the situation in the country.
4. September-December 1991. The end of perestroika, the collapse of the USSR.

A listing of the events that took place from 1989 to 1991, and will be the chronicle of the collapse of the USSR.

Accelerating socio-economic development

Gorbachev announced the need to reform the system at the plenum of the CPSU Central Committee in April 1985. This meant the active use of the achievements of scientific and technological progress, a change in the planning procedure. So far, there has been no talk of democratization, glasnost, or a socialist market. Although today the term "perestroika" is associated with freedom of speech, which was first spoken about several years before the end of the existence of the USSR.

The years of Gorbachev's rule, especially at the first stage, were marked by the hopes of Soviet citizens for changes, for long-awaited changes for the better. However, gradually the inhabitants of a huge country began to become disillusioned with the politician who was destined to become the last secretary general. The anti-alcohol campaign drew particular criticism.

No alcohol law

History shows that attempts to wean the citizens of our country from drinking alcohol do not bear any fruit. The first anti-alcohol campaign was carried out by the Bolsheviks back in 1917. The second attempt was made eight years later. They tried to fight drunkenness and alcoholism in the early seventies, and in a very peculiar way: they banned the production of alcoholic beverages, but expanded the production of wines.

The alcohol campaign of the eighties was called "Gorbachev's", although the initiators were Ligachev and Solomentsev. This time, the authorities decided the issue of drunkenness more radically. The production of alcoholic beverages was significantly reduced, a huge number of shops were closed, the prices for vodka rose more than once. But Soviet citizens did not give up so easily. Some bought alcohol at an overpriced price. Others were engaged in the preparation of drinks according to dubious recipes (V. Erofeev told about this method of dealing with dry law in his book "Moscow - Petushki"), and still others used the simplest method, that is, they drank cologne that could be purchased in any department store.

Meanwhile, Gorbachev's popularity was declining. Not only because of the ban on alcoholic beverages. He was verbose, while his speeches were of little meaning. At every official meeting, he appeared with his wife, who aroused particular irritation among the Soviet people. Finally, perestroika did not bring the long-awaited changes to the life of Soviet citizens.

Democratic socialism

By the end of 1986, Gorbachev and his aides realized that the situation in the country could not be easily changed. And they decided to reform the system in a different direction, namely in the spirit of democratic socialism. This decision was facilitated by a blow to the economy caused by many factors, including the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. Meanwhile, in some regions of the Soviet Union, separatist sentiments began to appear, and interethnic clashes broke out.

Destabilization in the country

In what year did the USSR end its existence? In 1991. At the final stage of "perestroika" there was a sharp destabilization of the situation. The economic difficulties turned into a large-scale crisis. There was a catastrophic collapse in the living standards of Soviet citizens. They learned about what unemployment is. The shelves in the stores were empty, if something suddenly appeared on them, endless queues instantly formed. Irritation and dissatisfaction with the authorities were growing among the masses.

The collapse of the USSR

In what year the Soviet Union ceased to exist, we figured it out. The official date is December 26, 1991. On this day, Mikhail Gorbachev announced that he would cease his presidency. With the collapse of the huge state, 15 former republics of the USSR gained independence. There are many reasons that led to the collapse of the Soviet Union. This is an economic crisis, and the degradation of the power elites, and national conflicts, and even an anti-alcohol campaign.

Let's summarize. The above are the main events that took place during the existence of the USSR. From what year to what year was this state present on the world map? From 1922 to 1991. The population perceived the collapse of the USSR in different ways. Someone rejoiced at the abolition of censorship, the opportunity to engage in entrepreneurial activity. Someone was shocked by the events of 1991. After all, it was a tragic collapse of the ideals on which more than one generation grew up.

December 26, 1991 is the official date of the collapse of the USSR. A day earlier, President Gorbachev announced that for "reasons of principle" he would cease his activity in his post. On December 26, the Supreme USSR adopted a declaration on the disintegration of the state.

The disintegrated Union included 15 Soviet Socialist Republics. The Russian Federation became the legal successor of the USSR. Russia declared sovereignty on June 12, 1990. Exactly one and a half years later, the leaders of the country announced their secession from the USSR. Legal "independence" December 26, 1991.

Earlier than all, the Baltic republics proclaimed their sovereignty and independence. Already on 16 1988, the Estonian SSR declared its sovereignty. A few months later in 1989, the Lithuanian SSR and the Latvian SSR also declared their sovereignty. Even Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania received legal independence a little earlier than the official collapse of the USSR - on September 6, 1991.

On December 8, 1991, the Union of Independent States was created. In fact, this organization failed to become a real Union, and the CIS turned into a formal meeting of the leaders of the participating states.

Among the Transcaucasian republics, Georgia most quickly wanted to secede from the Union. The independence of the Georgian Republic was declared on April 9, 1991. The Republic of Azerbaijan declared its independence on August 30, 1991, and the Republic of Armenia on September 21, 1991.

From August 24 to October 27, Ukraine, Moldova, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan announced their withdrawal from the Union. For the longest time, besides Russia, Belarus (left the Union on December 8, 1991) and Kazakhstan (left the USSR on December 16, 1991) did not announce its withdrawal from the USSR.

Failed attempts to gain independence

Some Autonomous Regions and Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics also previously tried to secede from the USSR and declare independence. In the end, they succeeded, though together with the republics to which these autonomies were included.

On January 19, 1991, the Nakhichevan ASSR, which was part of the Azerbaijan SSR, tried to secede from the Union. After some time, the Nakhichevan Republic, as a part of Azerbaijan, managed to leave the USSR.

Currently, a new union is being formed on the territory of the post-Soviet space. The unsuccessful project of the Union of Independent States is being replaced by integration in a new format - the Eurasian Union.

Tatarstan and Checheno-Ingushetia, which had previously tried to leave the USSR on their own, left the Soviet Union as part of the Russian Federation. The Crimean ASSR also failed to gain independence and seceded from the USSR only together with Ukraine.

It brought complete ruin to Bolshevik Russia. For her further existence, she needed to rely on someone. First of all, these were the closest neighbors: Ukraine, Belarus and Transcaucasia. The Bolsheviks coped with their task. As a result, on December 30, 1922, at the I Congress of Soviets, the formation of the USSR took place. On it, an agreement was signed on the relationship between the central government and the union bodies.

The prerequisites for the formation of the USSR were as follows:

In the RSFSR, power belonged to the Bolsheviks. In their desire to extend it to the union republics, they have achieved great success.

The Russian language was spoken on the territory of all nationalities.

The entire vast territory was connected by a single railway network.

Reasons for the formation of the USSR

The reasons for the formation of the USSR were as follows:

Foreign policy. The Bolshevik Party strove to extend its power to as much territory as possible, which it could cover.

Economic. Undermined Civil war the economy was leading Russia to starvation. She needed the support of the union republics.

Territorial. During the supply of food, it was necessary to move freely. The united state created optimal conditions for this.

Cultural. Despite their different roots, the peoples lived together for a long time, and this led to the formation of some common traditions.

Political. The government apparatus of the union republics, which consisted of Bolsheviks, was rigidly subordinate to the central government.

Unification stages

The main stages of unification in the early years of the formation of the USSR are presented in the table.

Stalin's and Lenin's principles of building a new country

There were two points of view on the formation of a single state. One development was, and the other.

The Stalinist formulation was as follows:

1. All union republics were part of the RSFSR as autonomies.
2. The authorities of the RSFSR became supreme in the new state.

Lenin's point of view was as follows:

1. All union republics should not enter, but unite together with the RSFSR into a single state on an equal footing.
2. In the new formation, it is necessary to create the highest authorities of the Union.

Stalin's plans were to create a centralized state. Lenin looked further. In the future, he wanted to join the Union and other European countries.

As time has shown, Lenin's point of view, 70 years later, led to the collapse of the association.

The difficulties of unification

The very first steps towards unification showed how difficult it was. On the basis of an agreement between the union republics, most of the industries were subordinated to the RSFSR People's Commissariats.

This state of affairs caused discontent on the part of the rest of the republics. In fact, having delegated power, they were deprived of the opportunity to make independent decisions. At the same time, there was a declaration on the independence of the republics in the field of governance. Stalin began to have difficulties in promoting the idea of ​​the republic joining the RSFSR as autonomous entities.

At this time, Lenin put forward his concept of uniting all republics on an equal footing. The name of such a formation was first proposed by the Union of Soviet Republics of Europe and Asia, but then changed to the USSR. Lenin motivated his proposal by the fact that the republics should enter the union so that the principles of good-neighborliness and respect are implemented. At the same time, a unified administration should be created from representatives of the union republics.

Formation of the USSR

Map: Formation of the USSR. Development of the Union State (1922-1940). 15 republics gradually united into one powerful country, which had a very strong military and economic potential. On 12/30/1922, at the Congress of Soviets, union treaties and a declaration on the formation of the USSR were signed.

The official date of the formation of the USSR is December 30, 1922. At this time, the I Congress of Soviets took place. It includes the republics:

• RSFSR;
• Ukraine;
• Belarus:
• republics of the Caucasus.

The congress adopted a declaration on the formation of the USSR and the Union Treaty.

In subsequent years, the USSR already included 15 republics. Added to the previous ones:

• Kazakhstan;
• Kyrgyzstan;
• Turkmenistan;
• Tajikistan;
• Uzbekistan;
• Azerbaijan;
• Turkmenistan;
• Georgia;
• Latvia;
• Lithuania;
• Estonia;
• Moldova.

For some time the Republic of Finland was included.

The declaration reflected the policy of the Soviet state. Its goals for the coming years were declared.

Some quotes read as follows:

1. At the present time, the whole world is divided into 2 camps: and.
2. The main aspiration of the USSR is the world revolution.
3. Any republic that has embarked on the socialist path of development has access to the USSR.
4. There was a call for the unification of the world proletariat against the capitalist system.

First constitution

The document was adopted at the II Congress of Soviets. On its basis, the jurisdiction of the USSR included the following questions:

1. Foreign and domestic trade.
2. Questions of war and peace.
3. Armed Forces Leadership.
4. Economic issues and the formation of the country's budget.
5. Legislative initiative.
6. All republics were part of the USSR on a voluntary basis. Territorial changes could be carried out only after agreement with them.

Government

The following authorities were approved in the Constitution:

The supreme organ of power in the USSR was the Congress of Soviets. Only he had the right to consolidate the Constitution or amend it. He was elected from the city councils.

The Central Executive Committee exercised government during the break between congresses. It consisted of the Council of Nationalities and the Union Council.

The Presidium of the CEC of the USSR decided state issues between sessions of the CEC.

The executive body of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR was the Council of People's Commissars. It consisted of a chairman, a deputy and ten people's commissars.

The republics had the opportunity to express their interests through government bodies such as the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR and the Council of Nationalities. According to the Constitution, the main power was concentrated in the center. Thus, from there the leadership of all the Union republics could be carried out.

The main posts of all central and allied bodies were occupied by the Bolsheviks. As a result, the party exercised total control over the activities of the newly created state.

Country leaders

The entire list of the leaders of the USSR from the moment of its formation to the collapse is presented in the table.

The meaning and consequences of the formation of the USSR

As a result political activities Bolsheviks created a huge multinational state. The centralized management made it possible to carry out a number of large-scale projects on its territory. In the shortest possible time was carried out by industry and agriculture. The country began to develop at a rapid pace. Many industrial plants were built and the whole country electrified.

However, all these achievements were based on the unprecedented enthusiasm of the population, and this could not continue all the time. During the years of Soviet power, the standard of living of the working people increased much less than in the capitalist world. This was carefully concealed by the government, so many barriers were created to travel abroad, especially to capitalist countries. However, this situation could not last long. , which began under Gorbachev, revealed to the population all the shortcomings of the socialist system, and after a few years the USSR ceased to exist.

When they talk about the collapse of the Soviet Union, August 19, 1991, the date of the creation of the State Emergency Committee, is often taken as the starting point. With his help, a desperate attempt was made to save the former USSR, but the putsch led to the opposite results. He not only did not stop the collapse of the empire, but even accelerated it - after a few months the USSR ceased to exist.

However, the chain of events that culminated in the dissolution of the USSR had begun six years earlier, when Mikhail Gorbachev, a member of the Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee, was elected General Secretary of the Communist Party. He was only the sixth secretary general in the entire history of the USSR, counting from 1922, but he also became the last.

1985 March

Mikhail Sergeevich Gorbachev becomes General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee. His election was to the liking of many, as it promised to breathe new life into the state, exhausted by years of stagnation.

For many years the country was ruled by communists of the old school, and the last three leaders of the party (Brezhnev, Chernenko, Andropov) were elderly and sick people. The funerals of the secretaries general have become almost an annual event.

Gorbachev was then 54 years old, and against the background of the previous leaders of the party (and the Politburo as a whole), he seemed young and energetic. And he started talking about the need for change. From his light hand the words "perestroika" and "glasnost" have entered many languages ​​of the world.

In a stagnant and closed society, both of these words sounded like a call for revolution. At the same time, even Gorbachev himself did not realize that the changes he had started would lead to the collapse of the empire and the elimination of the iron curtain that had divided Europe since the end of the Second World War.

December 1985

Gorbachev appoints Boris Yeltsin, the head of the Sverdlovsk regional committee, as secretary of the Moscow city party committee.

Even earlier, he nominated Secretary of the Communist Party of Georgia Eduard Shevardnadze for the post of USSR Foreign Minister, removing Andrei Gromyko, a veteran of Soviet diplomacy, who for many years "faithfully implemented the foreign policy of the USSR".

Like Gorbachev, Shevardnadze advocated the liberalization and democratization of Soviet society. Both have thought about it for years - and now they get down to business together.

Having established himself in Moscow, Yeltsin also understands the need for change. He carries out a thorough purge in the musty Moscow party "beau monde", dismissing and depriving representatives of the party elite of privileges.

1987

In January and June, Gorbachev speaks at sessions of the CPSU Central Committee with proposals for serious political and economic reforms. In those years, the concept of "serious reforms" was reduced to the introduction of elements of democracy in some areas of social and party life.

Be that as it may, perestroika began in earnest. The outside world watched with intense attention the actions of the Moscow reformer and speculated about whether he would cope. Gorbachev still enjoyed serious support at that time both in the USSR and abroad.

In November, Gorbachev publishes a book explaining his aspirations and the meaning of the reforms. It instantly becomes a bestseller in the USSR and is reprinted in many countries around the world.

In November 1987, Yeltsin had to resign from the post of secretary of the Moscow City Committee of the CPSU. He hastened perestroika too much, understood it too radically - and criticized Gorbachev for his slowness. Yeltsin's personal grudge against Gorbachev will play an important role in the subsequent development of events. The fact that Gorbachev leaves Yeltsin in Moscow as deputy minister of construction will also help.

1988

Perestroika runs into the first pitfall. The policy of reforms has previously met with resistance from the apparatchiks, who hindered economic transformation Gorbachev. Now the newspaper Sovetskaya Rossiya publishes an appeal for true communists to stand up against Gorbachev's reforms.

The appeal takes the form of a letter from the Leningrad chemist and staunch Stalinist Nina Andreeva. It is believed that this letter did not appear accidentally while Gorbachev was abroad.

Meanwhile, hopes for the restoration of independence are growing in the Baltic countries. In Estonia, the Popular Front is being formed, which is not yet called a political party, but de facto is it - this is happening in a country with a legalized one-party system. The example of Estonia is followed by Latvia and Lithuania.

The first national conflicts are also indicated. The Nagorno-Karabakh issue leads to armed clashes between Azerbaijan and Armenia.

Later, riots began in North and South (part of Georgia) Ossetia and Abkhazia. The clashes are taking place under the slogans of demanding independence from Georgia. Gorbachev continues to follow the intended path. He receives US President Ronald Reagan in Moscow, and later comes up with a proposal to introduce the presidency in the USSR and a parliament formed on the basis of alternative elections.

March 1989

Elections to the new supreme body are underway state power USSR - Congress of People's Deputies. From Moscow, Boris Yeltsin is elected by a large number of votes, thereby returning to the political arena.

Live TV broadcasts begin from the conference room. Their popularity is such that millions of people stop working and the authorities are canceling broadcasts.

Gorbachev is withdrawing the last of his troops from Afghanistan, ending a costly and highly unpopular war. His authority in the country is still high.

As Democrats celebrate the electoral system, hardliners are preparing to fight back. A peaceful demonstration in Georgia two weeks after the elections was violently dispersed by troops. There was no firing; sharpened sapper blades and poison gas were used. 19 people were killed, mostly women. Gorbachev claims that he knew nothing about the impending massacre.

July 1989

Gorbachev announces that the countries of the Warsaw Pact are free to decide their own future. By this time, Polish Solidarity had already largely undermined the communist regime in the country. In August, Lech Walesa becomes President of Poland.

The peoples of other countries of Eastern Europe are also raising their heads. They understand how great the risk is: the Hungarian uprising of 1956 and the "Prague Spring" of 1968 were brutally suppressed by Soviet troops.

But this time the will of the peoples triumphs. In September, Hungary shocks the world by opening its border with the West. In the old days, this until recently absolutely unthinkable step was to be followed by a crushing blow from Moscow, and thousands of residents of Eastern Europe rushed to Austria.

November 1989

The collapse of the Berlin Wall, which for decades served as the most expressive symbol of the Cold War, is an incredible surge of "democracy". But Gorbachev can still use force and keep his empire from collapse. The world is watching the wall collapse with a question on its lips: will it intervene?

Gorbachev prefers not to interfere. Scenes of popular rejoicing, meetings of relatives and neighbors separated by a wall are broadcast all over the world. It is hard to believe that until recently those who tried to break free were mercilessly shot while trying to get over the wall.

It is the turn of Czechoslovakia. In the course of the bloodless velvet revolution, the communists are ousted from power, and playwright Vaclav Havel becomes president. Towards the end of the year, there is a coup in Romania. It was not without bloodshed during the suppression of the uprising in Timisoara. But the cruel dictator Ceausescu was overthrown and, together with his wife, shot on the very day of Christmas.

But in the course of the triumphant march of freedom through the countries of the communist bloc, Gorbachev's popularity in the USSR began to decline. Since the beginning of its economic reforms, the shortage of food has been increasing and the standard of living has been falling. People are beginning to become disillusioned with perestroika.

January 1990

The Soviet regime is dying, but even in convulsions it is trying to show its former might. Having given freedom to the countries of the Warsaw Pact Organization, Moscow is not going to grant independence Soviet republics... The biggest concern is the unrest in the Baltics. Gorbachev is trying to keep the Baltic countries within a freer, but still Soviet, federation.

In mid-January, Soviet troops brutally crack down on demonstrators in Baku. At least a hundred people died (possibly many more).

Nevertheless, the reforms continue, and the demands to accelerate them are louder and louder. Gorbachev is accused of indecision. In response to mass demonstrations in February, Gorbachev called on the Congress of People's Deputies to introduce a multi-party system. The notorious sixth article of the constitution, which legitimized the undivided power of the communists, is losing force.

Perestroika brings Gorbachev the title of the first (and last) president of the USSR. Before him, all six sovereign leaders of the country were general secretaries of the Central Committee of the CPSU. The Supreme Council elects Gorbachev as president.

July 1990

Boris Yeltsin leaves the ranks of the Communist Party. Events are drawing to a close. In the summer, Ukraine declares its independence, followed by Armenia, Turkmenistan and Tajikistan.

Outside the country, Gorbachev is elevated to a pedestal. In October, shortly after German reunification, he is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.

But in the USSR, Gorbachev is having a hard time. The economy is bursting at the seams. All of its gilding has faded since perestroika. The president has to choose between radical and moderate reforms put forward by his prime minister, Nikolai Ryzhkov. Gorbachev chooses the middle path.

Yeltsin accuses Gorbachev of half-heartedness, of trying to cross a hedgehog with a snake. Gorbachev no longer suits anyone and finds himself in political isolation. While all the sub-Soviet peoples dream of independence, he is still worn out with the idea of ​​a new Union of Independent Soviet Republics.

Gorbachev warns against "dark forces of nationalism." In December, he says the country needs a strong hand. Shevardnadze is leaving the post of foreign minister, saying that things are heading for dictatorship. Nevertheless, Gorbachev is seeking special powers.

Abandoned by the most radical of his ministers, Gorbachev has largely shifted towards a hard line.

June 1991

The Russian Federation, which is the core of the Soviet Union, is holding republican elections for the first time. Russians elect Boris Yeltsin as president. Now the Kremlin is the center of the administration of both the Soviet Union and the Russian Federation. Old adversaries, Gorbachev and Yeltsin, work side by side.

Everything is ready for the denouement. Power in the Kremlin is contested by Soviet President Gorbachev, Russian President Yeltsin and old cadres of the Communist Party.

Meanwhile, the peoples are increasingly demanding independence. In January, Soviet troops brutally suppress demonstrations in Lithuania. More than 20 people were killed, 13 of them were killed during the storming of the TV tower in Vilnius.

The March referendum shows that the majority of the inhabitants of the USSR are in favor of preserving the reformed union, but the Baltic countries are resolutely leading the movement for a complete withdrawal from the union.

Causes of the collapse of the USSR

The collapse of the USSR was a phenomenon at that stage, in general, natural. The coup had to take place, and it doesn't even matter when it happened and who would come to power at the same time. But one cannot discount the random factor as well: events developed rapidly and at the same time very dramatically.

The most important reason was the struggle for power, which broke out at that moment throughout Russia. First of all, this is an open confrontation between the central government and the RSFSR, which adhered to different political views: President of the RSFSR Boris Yeltsin demanded more radical measures from Gorbachev in carrying out reforms. And it was Yeltsin who would later seize the initiative from the Emergency Committee and, on the wave of popular popularity, would come to power. It is difficult to say what he was guided by: his real democratic convictions or his desire to seize power. I suppose that at the initial stage, the first was dominant.

Around the same time, separatist tendencies began to appear in the union republics, primarily in the Baltic countries, where numerous clashes between troops and demonstrators demanded independence took place, and the overwhelming majority of the population spoke out for sovereignty, and in the Caucasus, where the desire for independence caused a new round of many years a conflict that continues to this day.

Plus to this - rotten politic system, which could no longer ensure effective governance in the regions due to the incredibly high level of local corruption on the one hand and the weakness of the central government on the other.

The agonizing planned economy completes the picture: rapidly growing inflation rates (in the last years of the existence of the USSR, prices grew quite rapidly), the gap between the cash and non-cash ruble, disastrous for any economy, the planned system bursting at the seams and the rupture of economic ties with the Union republics.

An ideological blunder also played a role: the harsh suppression of dissent, which flourished under Brezhnev and Andropov, and the communism that did not come in 1980, discredited the government even more.

The future of the Soviet Union was a foregone conclusion. And the State Emergency Committee became only that sign, when it suddenly became clear: it is no longer possible to live like this.