What can be cooked from squid: quick and tasty

"The image is pure, worthy of veneration" ... These words can be used to define the copper-cast icons and crosses created by the Old Believers in the vast expanses of Russia - in the sketes of Pomorie and the workshops of Moscow, in the villages of the Moscow region and the Volga region, in secret forges in the Urals and in Siberia - during less than three hundred years from the end of the 17th century. before the beginning of the XX century.

A new period in the history of copper casting is inextricably linked with the Old Believer movement in Russia, when in the second half of the 17th century, after the split of the Russian Orthodox Church, opponents of the reform of Patriarch Nikon were forced to flee from the persecution of the authorities, to flee from the center to remote outskirts, to hide in the forests. In such difficult conditions, it was the Old Believers who preserved and continued the Old Russian traditions of bookishness, icon painting and applied art. As priceless relics, ancient copper-cast images were carefully inserted into icon-case frames and put into picturesque wooden or carved folds.

But the Old Believers not only preserved the ancient Russian heritage, but also created their own special religious and spiritual culture. Copper-cast images, “as having been purified by fire,” and “not created by the Nikonians,” received widespread veneration among the people. The variety of forms, iconography, composition and decoration of the Old Believers' copper-cast crosses, icons and foldables is striking. Among this huge array of preserved copper-cast plastics, one can identify works created in specific workshops. It is no coincidence that already in the first half of the 19th century. there were such varieties, or categories of "low tide copper crosses and icons" - Pomor, Guslitsky (or Zagarsk) and Pogost, which became widespread among Old Believers of different communities and trends.

When looking at this bright and original layer of Russian applied art, one should constantly remember that the development of copper foundry took place in very special conditions, contrary to the law and the will of the authorities. Russia's need for non-ferrous metal, so necessary for military needs, caused the appearance of decrees of Peter I in 1722 and 1723, prohibiting not only the production, sale, but also the existence of copper icons and crosses.

According to the action of these decrees, only crosses were allowed - vests and breast panagias. The Old Believers considered only the eight-pointed cross to be "correct", which was depicted in the center of the male and female pectoral cross. "May God rise and disguise Him ..." - these words of the prayer have become an obligatory part of the design of the circulation of the crosses - vests.

Despite the existence of this law, which has been in effect in Russia for 160 years, copper business in the Old Believers' environment, among the forests, in hidden hermitages, has reached an extraordinary height of artistic embodiment.

The brightest page in the history of Russian sacred plastic art became icons, crosses and folds, made in the foundries of the Vygovsky Pomor community. This Old Believer monastery, founded in 1694 on the Vyg River, in Karelia, considered itself the successor of the ancient Solovetsky monastery on the White Sea, and its founders, Saints Zosima and Savvaty Solovetsky, as their heavenly patrons. It is no coincidence that the images of these saints were spread both on icons and on folding doors. Already in the first half of the 18th century. Vygovskaya Pustyn became the largest economic, religious and cultural center of the Old Believers. The handwritten books, icons, small sculptures created at Vygu were distinguished by the unity of the artistic style, which received the name "Pomor".

To satisfy the prayer needs of the adherents of the Pomor bespopov consent, first of all, “correct” crosses were needed. Copper-cast Pomor crosses with the image of the Crucifixion of Christ were cast in an eight-pointed shape and a strictly defined composition - at the upper end was depicted the Savior Not Made by Hands with the inscription “King of Glory IC XC (Jesus Christ) Son of God”. The same composition is repeated on a small Pomor cross, the central image of a pictorial icon, distinguished by the subtlety of writing and a pronounced decorative sound.

With further complication of the shape, the cross received side rectangular plates with paired images of the forthcoming Mother of God and St. Martha, the Apostle John the Theologian and the martyr Longinus the centurion. Such icon case crosses were often cut not only into icon case frames, but also decorated pictorial icons. These crosses were cast in a variety of sizes - from very small ones, the surface of which was often decorated with multi-colored enamels, to large gilded ones, decorated with exquisite ornaments on the back. Excellent molding, fine casting and meticulous finishing - all these distinctive features of the Pomeranian small plastics were achieved by the high professionalism of the chasers, casters and enamel craftsmen.

These signs were clearly manifested in the creation of a miniature composition "Savior Not Made by Hands", decorated with enamel of a rare dark red color.

The main types of products of the famous Vygovskaya "copper" were not only crosses, but also folds with different composition valves (bivalve, tricuspid, four-winged).

Among the repertoire of the Vygov masters, a special place belonged to small bivalve folds, which received the name "Pomorskaya Panagia". The form of the Old Russian panagia, formed in small plastic, was creatively reworked by Pomor craftsmen. On the square doors in medallions against a smooth dark blue enamel background there are compositions with the images of the Mother of God of the Sign and the Old Testament Trinity. The decorative decoration of the other folding is distinguished by a combination of a white-pink background with spectacular contrasting yellow dots on dark "corners". The reverse side of such miniatures was also decorated - in the form of one strict composition with the image of the eight-pointed Calvary cross, or in addition to the pattern in the form of a large rosette flower, colored with glassy enamels. Subsequently, the Pomor craftsmen slightly increased the size of the folding fold and supplemented it with a third panel with the image of the Crucifixion of Christ. Decorated with bright enamels with contrasting dots, these miniature pieces are reminiscent of precious jewelry pieces created by ancient Russian craftsmen. Such small folds could be worn as pectoral foldable icons.

The same breast icons created by Pomor craftsmen are small three-leaf folds with the image of the Deisus composition. The combination of dark turquoise and white enamel, embossed star rosettes on the smooth surface of the background and rays on the halos distinguishes a miniature work of the first half of the 18th century. In this folding, everything is admirable - the plastic development of the image and the thoughtful decoration of the front and back sides.

The most popular among the Pomor sculptures was the new iconographic version of the copper-cast three-winged folding "Deesis with selected saints", which was named "nine" according to the number of figures depicted on the wings. In a certain composition of the saints, each of whom were dedicated chapels in the prayer houses of the Vygov community, the idea of ​​the intercession of the Mother of God and the saints of the created monastery was embodied. The variety of decorative decoration of folds, decorated with multi-colored vitreous enamels, decorated with contrasting dots or a rare range of pink tones, is striking. On the reverse of the left wing, a composition depicting an eight-pointed Calvary cross was traditionally cast; the surface of other leaves could be decorated with a large rosette or cartouche. On the surface of the smooth frame, after visiting the Vygovskaya monastery, it was possible to carve a memorable date, initials or the name of the owner.

The second version of the folding "Deesis with selected saints" also became famous, on the side panels of which a different composition of saints was depicted. Compositions of flaps of this folding have become widespread in the form of separate small "one-shot" icons.

The program work of the Pomor foundry workers was the four-leaf folding, or, as it was solemnly called, “large festive wings”. It is believed that the original model was made of a large three-fold folding folding, on the hallmarks of which the twelve holidays are represented. Later, keeled kokoshniks and a fourth alignment were added to such square sections - this is how the image of a full four-leaf folding was formed. On the first three sections, the hallmarks represent the twelve feasts, and on the fourth, scenes of worship of the images of the Mother of God. This copper-cast piece of art, which has become a marching iconostasis, is distinguished by the integrity of a single creative concept. On the reverse side of one of the sash, there is traditionally a composition depicting the Calvary cross in an ornamental frame-headpiece. A feature of individual specimens will be the decoration of the turnover of the sash with a lush embossed ornament of curling shoots with a cartouche in the center. By order of the owner, a commemorative inscription could be carved on the surface of such a smooth frame.

After the creation of this four-winged folding vygov historians, probably, and could say about the mentor Andrei Denisov, that he "brought and arranged in the proper order the existing form in the copper-cast sections, which until then had been absent-minded."

It is still unknown who was the author of the four-folding folding model? Among the foundry masters on Vygu, whose names we know from written sources, were Novgorodians and people from different cities and villages. Both scribes and icon-makers, who painted picturesque images for the worshipers of the Vygov monastery, could have taken part in the creation of samples of Pomor miniature sculpture.

The high professionalism of the Vygov craftsmen consisted in the creation of a collapsible folding model, which made it possible to cast not only icons in the form of separate sections of independent stamps, but also various iconographic versions of three-leaf folding folding devices with images of festive compositions.

One of the most revered among the "desert dwellers" and numerous pilgrims will be a three-winged folding with the image of the twelve feasts "The Assumption of the Virgin. Resurrection of Christ (Descent into Hell). Epiphany". A special attitude to this type of folding is associated with the main cathedral chapel of the Vygov community and its patronal feasts.

The accumulated skills of foundry contributed to the wide scale of the craft - the production of copper crosses and the gate were engaged in 5 sketes of the Vygov community. The products cast in these remote forges were sent to the monastery and then transported throughout the Russian land. Handwritten texts of edicts-instructions on foundry and enamel art, compiled by Pomor craftsmen, have survived. They passed on their experience, advised how to prepare the ground for casting, grind the enamel and put different colors on the frames and crosses. “Then practice yourself in every business and in all sciences and understand clearly and you will be skillful in everything” - with these words the unknown master ends his instructions on foundry and enamel.

To the circle of Pomor plasticity belonged the marching iconostases, which included in their composition a cross - a crucifix surrounded by stamps depicting festive plots and valves of the Pomor panagia, and in rare cases- and individual miniature images. Similar small pectoral icons with images of the Mother of God Hodegetria of Smolensk, the holy martyrs Kirik and Ulita and St. Nicholas the Wonderworker accompanied people during their wanderings and travels across the vast expanses of the Russian land. It is no coincidence that the Pomor craftsmen created another version of the three-winged folding folding arm, on the wings of which three different subjects are connected: “St. Nicholas the Wonderworker. Our Lady of All Who Sorrow Joy. Holy Martyrs Kirik and Julitta with selected saints ”. Such an elegant gilded fold, cast in one of the skete workshops, as a Pomor relic, became a precious prayer image until the end of his life ...

Copper-cast icons, crosses and folds, created by talented Pomor casters and enamelists, have become models for numerous workshops throughout Russia, including for small handicraft establishments in Moscow, Vladimir, Nizhny Novgorod and other provinces. Thanks to the work of these rural foundry masters, copper icons and crosses, which have become widespread among the people, have become a widely available form of applied art.

The main place in the assortment of products of these handicraft workshops was occupied by crosses, which differed not only in a certain iconographic program, but also in compositional diversity. First of all, guslitsky craftsmen cast large eight-pointed altar crosses with a relief image of the "Crucifixion of Christ" and the inscription "INTSI" (Jesus of Nazareth King of the Jews). Such crosses became widespread among the Old Believers-priests who accept the priesthood. "The Cross is the guardian of the entire Universe, the Cross is the beauty of the church ..." - this text has become an obligatory element in the design of the turnover of crosses that differ not only in size, but also in their decorative solution. A small cross with a high-relief image of the Crucifixion of Christ is adorned with gilding, embedded in the centerpiece of a picturesque three-winged folding fold.

The iconic crosses, large and small, surrounded by icon-stamps and crowned with images of cherubim and seraphim on high pins, gained particular popularity in the folk environment. A clear compositional solution with a relief image of the Crucifixion of Christ, a combination of stylized plant and scaly ornaments, a two-color enamel scale highlight one of the expressive works of guslitsky masters. The detailed iconographic program of a large iconographic cross, surrounded by 18 stamps with images of festive subjects, is a bright completion of the creative search of guslitsky foundry masters. Such crosses, often carved into picturesque icons or tinted boards, became the decoration of the interiors of many Old Believer churches.

From one handicraft workshop of the second half of the 18th century, it is possible that several works originate - a small icon "The Dormition of the Theotokos" and the middle of the folds "Selected Holidays", "Deesis with Selected Saints". The same shape of the top with the image of the Savior Not Made by Hands, a similar color range of enamels covering the surface of objects in a dense layer - these common technological, iconographic and stylistic features allow these items to be attributed to the same circle of copper-cast plastic. Later, the folds with the two-row composition "Deesis with the Selected Saints" will be cast with a massive dome, which will be decorated with a large flower rosette or the image of the Savior Not Made by Hands.

To the works of the late 18th century. owns a small crucifix, decorated with green enamel and blue flowers, with three-part curved ends of the branches. A feature of this cross is the image at the lower end of the composition "St. Nicholas the Wonderworker and St. Nikita Beating the Demon".

To the best examples of copper-cast plastics of the 18th century. belongs to the three-winged folding "Savior of Smolensk with the Monks Zosima and Savvaty of Solovetsky", decorated with an elegant color combination yellow, green and blue enamel. The decorative sound of the image was enhanced by enamel white, partially preserved on the frame of the centerpiece. The same composition of the saints is made on the folds of the fold "Our Lady of Odigitria of Smolensk", topped with a figured pommel. "I put all my hope in You, Mother of God ..." - these words of the prayer, which not only adorned the copper-cast image, but also filled it with sounding content, became the embodiment of a special veneration of the image Holy Mother of God.

In the XVIII century. there was also a different composition of images on the folds' valves. The festive themes complement the composition of the folding, in the centerpiece of which, on the smooth surface of the blue-green enamel background, there is a relief image of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker.

Following ancient Russian traditions, the shape of the Guslitsky and Zagarsk three-winged folding folds, repeating in miniature the Royal Doors of the temple iconostasis, will find the widest distribution in compositions with images of the Virgin and selected saints, widely revered among the people. The large "doors" "Archangel Michael with Selected Holidays" and "Our Lady of Passion with Selected Saints", which have the general shape of the keeled end of the centerpiece and the doors and are decorated with geometric patterns, are traditional works of the 19th century guslitsky casters.

It is when you look at these simple objects, made in small rural copper establishments, that you begin to understand and feel how completely special was the role of copper-cast plastics in Everyday life Russian person, with her joys and hardships. The image of St. Antipas of Pergamon, represented both on small light images and in folds, was prayed for getting rid of a toothache. The widespread veneration of St. Paraskeva Friday, the patroness of the family and trade, was embodied in a small, road-trip three-winged folding folding car and on an elegant gilded image crowned with a pommel with six cherubs.

The Holy Martyrs Kirik and Ulita, who were revered as patrons of the family and children, were depicted both on small folds with selected saints, and as part of four-part compositions that repeated Pomor miniature images. Another composition, crowned with a complex ornamental pommel, includes “one-shot” icons “Saint Nikita slaying the devil”, “Martyrs Kirik and Ulita”, “Our Lady of Kazan” and “Saint Nicholas the Wonderworker”.

Such simple and modest images could be performed in numerous workshops of the Zagarsk villages of the Moscow region. So, in the villages of the Bogorodsky district of the Moscow province, which were "fed" by the copper industry, up to 150 establishments are known. But only a few of these workshops were engaged in casting crosses, icons and folds. In these rural establishments with traditional production, including a smithy and a "printing house" - the room where the "earth" was stored and the forms were printed, simple and cheap products were cast, extremely rarely decorated with enamels ...

The craftsmen of these small handicraft establishments tried to expand their assortment and improve the quality of their products. So, in 1882, at the famous All-Russian art and industrial exhibition held in Moscow, Ivan Tarasov, a peasant from the village of Novoye, Bogorodsky district, Moscow province, was awarded "for copper images of very clean work and rather cheap prices." Later, in 1902, another master Fyodor Frolov from the same village, who owned a small handicraft establishment, presented his copper crosses at the All-Russian Handicraft and Industrial Exhibition in St. Petersburg.

The proximity of the repertoire of the Zagarsk and Guslitsky copper-cast plastics and its widespread existence do not allow us to more definitely distinguish the products of each of these numerous rural workshops. So, at the beginning of the XX century. the famous researcher of Pomor books and casting V.G. Druzhinin attributed all the plastic produced in the Moscow province to the category of "guslitskaya or zagarskaya" and noted such a sign as "lightness."

The products of the guslitsky craftsmen were really light. Among these works, the casting made in the village of Antsiforovo stood out, which was sold in Moscow by weight in poods and much more expensive than the Zagarsk one. But the main distinguishing feature of guslitsk plastics, we believe, should be recognized as the increased decorativeness of copper-cast crosses, icons and folds. The surface of each guslitsky image is filled with an ornament in the form of curling shoots, stylized curls or simple geometric elements in the form of triangles, dots or stripes.

Plant shoots with small leaves and flowers adorn the image of the holy martyrs Antipas, Florus and Laurus. Another plant motif in the form of tall shoots with large buds-flowers, similar to the ornament of guslitsky manuscripts, was used by craftsmen to decorate the icon "St. Gregory the Theologian, Basil the Great and John Chrysostom". An openwork pommel with the composition "King is King", crowned with images of cherubim and seraphim on high pins, will become one of the distinctive elements of guslitsky copper-cast works.

The image of the Mother of God, the "warm intercessor", in the guslitsk plastics will receive its unique artistic solution. The centerpiece of the fold "Our Lady of Kazan" with the pommel "Savior Not Made by Hands", "The Old Testament Trinity" and two cherubs are distinguished by an elegant combination of dark blue and white enamel. A curly shoot with flowers, adorning the halo of the Virgin and repeating against the background as the embodiment in metal of the words of the chant "like the Everlasting Color we glorify Thee Bogomati", will become an integral part of the ornamental pattern of guslitsk icons.

Prayer chants "will sound" on the frame of the copper-cast icon "The Intercession of the Virgin", decorated with glassy enamel of white, blue and green colors with rare spots of yellow. We believe that special reverence for this image is associated with the Cathedral of the Intercession of the Most Holy Theotokos at the Rogozhskoye cemetery in Moscow, from the 18th century. which became the center of the Old Believers-priests.

The image of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker, merciful and quick in helping the intercessor of "all those in trouble", in the copper-cast plastics of the guslitsky masters will find the most vivid artistic embodiment. The openwork pommel, the richness of ornamental motifs in the form of a shoot against the background and halo of the saint, stripes of curls in combination with blue-black and white enamel create an image of increased decorativeness. Another large image, the entire surface of which is woven with ornaments and decorated with an elegant combination of white, bright blue and yellow enamel, will complete the creative search of the guslitsky masters.

In the foundries of the village of Nikologorsky Pogost on the Vladimir land, craftsmen produced copper-cast plastics with completely different characteristics. The craftsmen took into account the increased interest of the Old Believers in the ancient Russian "pre-Nikon" works and learned to imitate and even in a special way forge icons and crosses to match old samples.

The products of these workshops were bought in bulk by offeni traders, who then not only sold icons and crosses to the surrounding villages, but also delivered goods to the fair in Nizhny Novgorod and other cities. For copper icons, the so-called "pogost" casting, we believe, is characterized by a special plastic development of the image, repeating ancient Russian compositions, forms and ornaments. Folding "St. Nicholas the Wonderworker (Mozhaisky)", close to the works of Old Russian wood carving, and the openwork icon "Saints Boris and Gleb", made using the perforated casting technique, are expressive examples of the products of these rural establishments.

Among the Old Believers, "ancient" copper-cast icons were especially popular, distinguished by a high-relief image of the Almighty Savior, with a two-fingered blessing gesture of the right hand and a closed Gospel in the left. The composition of the icon is completed by fields with a relief text of a chant dedicated to the feast of the Transfiguration of the Lord: "He was transformed on the mountain, Christ God, showed his disciples his glory ...". To confirm the "antiquity" of the created image of the master, a relief date "ZRV LETA" (7102 = 1594) was cast on the back of such icons, which is obviously associated with a certain historical event late 16th century The same date is cast on the reverse of the crucifix, which repeats the iconography of one of the revered ancient Russian samples.

Other features are the crosses, icons and folds made by the Moscow Old Believer workshops, which make up a huge layer of copper-cast plastic. Artistic casting by the Old Believers of Moscow became a new stage in the development of this type of applied art. The rapid formation of foundry was facilitated by the formation of the largest Old Believer centers in the city. In 1771, during a plague epidemic, the Rogozhskoe (priest) and Preobrazhenskoe (bespopovskoe Fedoseevskoe) cemeteries were founded in different parts of Moscow.

Copper-cast products for the community of the Rogozhskoye cemetery were supplied from the guslitsky villages near Moscow. The situation was different with the production of copper crosses and icons for the community of the Preobrazhensky cemetery in the Lefortovo part of Moscow. In a short time, at the expense of wealthy merchant trustees, workshops were created for the correspondence of books and the production of pictorial and copper-cast icons. It is known that the founder of the community, Ilya Kovylin, traveled to Vyg and brought from there the text of the charter; in the image of the Vygovskaya monastery, the construction of the architectural ensemble of the Preobrazhensky cemetery was carried out.

We believe that Iliya Kovylin also got acquainted with the foundries that brought significant income to the Vygovskaya monastery. Already at the end of the 18th century, in the immediate vicinity of the Preobrazhensky cemetery, foundries were created on the territory of private households, which began to make crosses and folds "in the likeness of the Pomor." These workshops primarily worked for their communities in Moscow and other cities, whose parishioners "prayed only to copper images, and that was the work of their fellow believers."

After long disputes with the Pomors about the correct form and inscriptions in the composition of the Moscow-made crosses, a well-thought-out and substantiated program developed by Vygov's mentors was embodied. Following the Pomor iconography, at the upper end of the cross was depicted the image of the "Savior Not Made by Hands", above the "Crucifixion of Christ" the inscription was cast: "King of Glory IC XC (Jesus Christ) Son of God". The front surface of this cross, a crucifix, made in the second half of the 19th century, is decorated with multi-colored enamels that emphasize the main elements of the created composition.

A similar inscription: "Tsar of Glory IC XC (Jesus Christ) Son of God" was originally executed on the cross, which became the center of the composition of a large pictorial icon in a silver setting, made by Moscow masters of the early 19th century. But obviously, at the request of the owner, on the upper end of the copper-cast cross, the monogram “IC XC” was erased and the inscription “INTSI” was engraved.

Moscow craftsmen constantly worked to expand the range and decorative design of copper-cast works, including small crosses, which were in great demand. So, in the composition of the property of the Old Believers who lived at the Preobrazhensky cemetery, crosses are often mentioned - crucifixes "of a smaller size with the Mother of God and the Apostle John the Theologian." For stability, such crosses were cast with a small trapezoidal base. A similar widened lower end is also made on the cross - a crucifix with three-part curved ends of the branches, the surface of which is decorated with multicolored enamels.

Iconic crosses with the forthcoming Mother of God and Saint Martha, the Apostle John the Theologian and the martyr Longinus the centurion became widespread among the Moscow Old Believers. A special feature of another casting was the date "1879." and the monogram "M.R.S.Kh." belonging to Rodion Semenovich Khrustalev, one of the famous chasers.

In the traditions of the Pomor casting art, the three-winged folding "Deisus with selected saints", decorated with dense gilding, is executed. On the reverse side of this foldable there is a repeated composition depicting an eight-pointed Calvary cross in a figured cartouche.

In archival documents of the second half of the 19th century. often mentioned are three-leaf folds with the image of the Deisus composition, which has received a new decorative solution in Moscow copper establishments. High quality casting, conveying even the smallest details on the faces and figures of the Savior, the Mother of God and John the Baptist, distinguish these samples of the late 19th century. The surface of the valves is "woven" with a continuous floral ornament covered with glassy enamels. On the reverse side, in a decorated frame against the background of an unfolded panorama of the city of Jerusalem, the Calvary cross is depicted, protruding in relief against a sky-blue enamel background.

We believe that the Moscow masters embodied the idea of ​​a large three-part "Deesis", which is a composite composition with a high-relief image of the "Savior on the Throne" and openwork images of the archangels Michael and Gabriel.

Among Moscow works, the "two-vertex" image of "The Savior of Smolensky" has gained wide popularity. The iconography of this composition by Venerable Sergius of Radonezh and Varlaam Khutynsky reflects a locally revered pictorial image that was on the tower of the Moscow Kremlin and associated with the capture of Smolensk in 1514.

The appearance in the copper-cast plastic of a small double-leaf folding "Deisus. Guardian Angel and Saint Nicholas the Wonderworker ”, possibly, is also associated with the work of Moscow masters. The idea of ​​heavenly patronage for the Preobrazhensky community, embodied in Deesis, was completed in the images of the guardian angel and St. Nicholas the Wonderworker. The appearance of this Moscow version of the bivalve folding fold could be associated with the main prayer room in the male half of the architectural ensemble of the Preobrazhensky cemetery - the Assumption chapel and its chapel in the name of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker.

The design of the reverse side of this small folding folding device repeats the composition of the famous Pomor Panagia. A similar folding folding with the image of the "Old Testament Trinity" and "Our Lady of the Sign", decorated with white glassy enamel, is a vivid example of the work of Moscow enamel artists.

The masters have repeatedly turned to create different options compositions "The Old Testament Trinity", among which the large-format image stands out, characterized by a well-thought-out and balanced composition. The "two-vertex" image "The Old Testament Trinity", which has become widespread in the Old Believers' environment, is distinguished by the monogram of the master R.S. Khrustalev.

This Moscow master-chaser owns a large and varied range of monuments of copper-cast plastics, in which a special place is occupied by the four-fold folding "Twelve Feasts", made according to the model of R.S. Khrustalev. The increased dimensions of the folding fold, frames with embossed inscriptions over the stamps, and multicolored enamels of the traditional Moscow scale distinguish this revised version of the Pomor fold.

Initials R.S. Khrustalev and his student (?), Master monogrammist S.I.B. Numerous small "one-shot" images are marked, repeating the hallmarks of a large four-fold folding with the image of the twelve feasts.

Such casts could have been made in one of the copper establishments that existed in the Lefortovo part of Moscow on Devyataya Rota Street. The history of the workshop, which belonged to the Moscow bourgeois women Irina and Aksinya Timofeevs, is being reconstructed from documents from the first half of the 19th century. ... It is known that the products of this copper institution were sold not only in Moscow, but also in St. Petersburg and other cities of Russia. It is with this workshop that we can confidently associate the appearance of the model of the “two-vertex” image “Our Lady of Kazan”. The combination of multi-colored enamels in the centerpiece of the icon and on the wide margins, decorated with a stylized ornament in the form of a vine, creates a bright, elegant image. The icons "Our Lady of Kazan", created according to the model of the master Ignat Timofeev, found repetition in numerous castings of the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. ...

In the second half of the XIX century. the history of this copper establishment is connected with the new owner Ekaterina Petrova. The works of the workshop created during this period of its existence include the casting of such a large-format image as “Our Lady of Odigitria of Smolensk”.

Among the masterpieces of Moscow copper foundry and enamel art belongs the image of the Assumption of the Virgin. The multi-figured composition of the centerpiece is surrounded by wide margins decorated with intricate intertwining ornamentation. When looking at this copper-cast image, decorated with multicolored enamels and gilding, one gets the full impression of an icon in a precious setting. The effective use of contrasting colors of dark blue and white enamel enhances the decorative sound of this piece. It is possible that the original image was created for the Cathedral of the Assumption prayer house of the Preobrazhensky cemetery in Moscow. In the 1870s - 1880s. the model of this large-format composition was repeatedly "corrected" or "minted" by Rodion Khrustalev.

One of the brightest works of the famous master is the icon "Saints Gregory the Theologian, Basil the Great and John Chrysostom." The composition of the icon with the solemn staging of the figures of saints and the relief image of the Savior Not Made by Hands, the stylized floral ornament in the form of tall shoots with large buds, the decor in the form of stripes of enamel of blue, green, blue-black, yellow and white colors - all this creates an image of increased decorativeness ... The basis for this striking creation was a modest composition of the work of a guslitsky master. Later R.S. Khrustalev repeatedly worked to recreate the image of the three ecumenical teachers and saints, using the model of the first half of the 19th century. The monogram of R.S. Khrustalev, the image "The Fiery Ascension of the Prophet Elijah" is also noted, which received special veneration among the Old Believers.

O high quality The works of Moscow engraving masters have preserved memories that belonged to the Krasnoselsky caster Anfim Serov: “... The uterus (model) ... is made by a master engraver. The work is very difficult, requiring a good master-practitioner ... The fact is that the model is pressed into the ground, then, when it is removed from the ground, it must come out freely, without taking the earth with it ... To make such a full-fledged model, the masters were only in Moscow ... " ... Such masters were Ignat Timofeev, Rodion Khrustalev, S.I.B. and other chasers, often known to us only by the initials on numerous copper-cast crosses, icons and folds of Moscow origin.

A small copper-cast icon depicting the Apostle John the Theologian and his disciple Prokhor praying to the image of the Savior Not Made by Hands against the background of the architectural ensemble of the Preobrazhensky cemetery had a memorable character for the Moscow Old Believers. The copper image of the "Prophet Daniel", a saint of the same name to Daniel Vikulin, one of the founders of the Vygovskaya Pomor monastery, had a similar memorable significance. Unlike the Pomor samples of the 18th century. with a dull smooth background, the Moscow castings with the image of the saint are made using the perforated casting technique.

Moscow foundry masters constantly worked on the creation of new iconographic versions of large and small compositions with images of saints. The image of the martyr Tryphon, depicted with a bird in his hand, was widely respected among the Old Believers. An extended version of the story of the rescued princess is reflected in numerous casts depicting the scene "The Miracle of George and the Dragon." Saints John the warrior, Charalampius and Bonifatius, depicted in the centerpiece of a small copper-cast icon, were revered as an assistant

Small in size, sometimes very small, and sometimes the size of a human palm or a little more: ancient crosses, folds and icons made of copper are quite often found in private collections, in museum collections, or just on someone's shelf, as an inheritance from grandmothers. Undoubtedly, the skillful work of these icons attracts attention to itself, the careful drawing of images draws Old Believer pictures, hiding some mysteries incomprehensible to us.

Cast icons have been known in Russia since the 11th century, i.e. since the emergence and spread of Christianity. Naturally, these were originally icons brought from Byzantium. At that time, it was Byzantium that was the cultural center of the Orthodox religion. Later, especially in the XIV-XIX centuries, the copper-cast icon began to be mass-produced in Russia. At the same time, the production of copper-cast plastics was very diverse, and the assortment range was quite impressive.

Among other examples of the work of ancient Russian masters, a very original icon, called the serpentine, deserves special attention. This wearable amulet can be viewed as a kind of connecting link between Slavic paganism and the Orthodox cult that replaced it.

By appearance coil and was an icon small size, on one side of which the usual Orthodox shrines were depicted (a cross or the image of a saint), but on the reverse side there was clearly pagan symbolism - the interweaving of serpentine bodies. It is worth noting that copper serpentine amulets, of course, prevailed, but there are also similar icons made of precious metals.

Cast icons were especially widespread in Russia in the Middle Ages. Their release was established in Tver, Moscow, Novgorod and other lands. Most often, ancient revered icons were used as the initial models for casting, but over time, works by local artists began to appear more and more.

Folding with twenty hallmarks-plots (popular name "iron"), Russia, late 18th - early 19th centuries

Most often, icons as a product of copper casting were made of rectangular shape, with slightly rounded edges. Much less often in collections comes across a copper-cast icon of a polygonal and or round shape, but, nevertheless, such specimens were also made. In addition to icons, a large number of pectoral crosses, icon cases and pectoral crosses, folding crosses were produced in Russia. Also produced, the so-called, reliquaries- crosses, consisting of doors, which served as a small hiding place for holy relics or other Christian relics.

The icon of the cut "The Miracle of George about the Dragon", Russia, XVII century

The subjects depicted on the icons are very diverse, naturally within the framework of the Orthodox theme. It is worth noting that copper-cast plastic is replete with plots of both Old Believers' content and new Orthodox Church... Naturally, the most common subjects of cast icons are images of the Mother of God and the Child, the Crucifixion, Christ, various scenes of the Prayer, revered Saints, etc. As a rule, a special loop was made in the head of the copper-cast icons, through which a cord was passed, and, accordingly, the copper image could be hung around the neck or just anywhere at home. What is typical for icons of a later release (XIX century) is that such a loop-hole was only imitated, it was impossible to pass a lace through it, as there was no through hole.

One of the popular varieties of cast icons is folding... In fact, it is a folding icon, most often a triptych. Their popularity can be explained quite simply, when folded, the folds did not take up much space, in most cases they did not exceed the dimensions of an ordinary copper-cast icon, then in the unfolded state they were almost a ready-made marching iconostasis. In ancient times, a person on a campaign could not always visit a church if necessary. And the road, as you know, is full of dangers and surprises, and the journeys sometimes lasted for weeks or months. An ordinary wooden icon on the road is an extra load, but it can be damaged or split inadvertently. But such copper hiking folds were very convenient, and more resistant to road hardships and hardships.

But such copper plastic in Russia was not limited to a set of standard icons and crosses for Christians. In this copper variety there was a place for a special product - crosses and special icons used by clergy. These icons were called panagia, they had a round shape and on their surface the image of the Most Holy Theotokos was necessarily depicted (translated from Greek "Panagia" is translated as "All-Holy").

Copper casting in Russia did not stand still in terms of design. At the end of the 17th century in Russia, more and more copper-cast items related to the spiritual life of the common people began to appear. Many of these things have contributed immensely to history and are now represented in the largest state collections.

Copper-cast icons after the split of the church

At the end of the 17th century, the history of Russia was replenished with another great event. In 1666-1667, the Russian Orthodox Church split. This event affected all aspects of the life of Russian society at that time. It also did not pass by the copper foundry.

This reform was carried out under the leadership of Patriarch Nikon and pursued the goal of bringing to a single form all church attributes (books, icons, calendars), in accordance with the most ancient Byzantine tradition. Orthodox priests understood that over the more than 500-year history of the existence of the Russian Church, a huge number of different interpretations, inconsistencies and distortions have accumulated in church iconography, literature and practice. There were many reasons for the occurrence of such distortions, but the most probable and serious is the fact that books have been rewritten by hand from time immemorial. Errors accumulated from copyist to copyist like a snowball. There were both accidental typos and deliberate changes. The reform progressed with great difficulty, since, in addition to followers, it also gained ill-wishers. In fact, the Orthodox people split into two camps, and each camp honored its like-minded people as a true guardian of church traditions. The followers of old traditions were called Old Believers, and the church was called Old Believers.

The 18th century was marked by another event - the church was officially included in the state system. From that moment on, the followers of the Old Believer traditions began to receive widespread restrictions from the current legislation. In particular, an attempt was made to destroy the existing icons and prohibit the production of new ones - with the image of "baptism of two fingers." A hunt for "unsophisticated" and "wrong" images was announced throughout the country. In 1723 and even worse, a decree was issued, which generally prohibits the production of metal icons.

Icon "St. Nicholas the Wonderworker", Russia, XVII century

Naturally, like other laws in Russia, in practice this decree was not implemented, but, nevertheless, the attitude of the people towards the copper-faced images changed in the 18th-19th centuries. The copper icon began to be perceived as an element of the Old Believer religion.

At the same time, cast Orthodox icons received even more support from the Old Believers. Copper casting was easy to replicate with at least one die on hand. Each individual icon, in fact, could become a model for making subsequent images. It was easy to preserve and pass metal icons from generation to generation, so they began to be perceived as a symbol of eternity. A symbol of the true old faith.

It is worth noting that the Old Believers really saved many historical monuments, including especially rare unique copper-cast icons. They in no way suspended the release and production of metal images, and even more can be said that all remakes were perceived by them as true icons, ancient, the only true ones. Moreover, all the remakes were made in the image of the old ones, in compliance with all the traditions of manufacture and design. And since the people for the most part try to honor the old ancestral traditions, copper metal-plastic has become widespread far beyond the boundaries of the Old Believer communities.

Serpentine "Chernihiv Hryvnia Vladimir Monomakh"

In the 18th-19th centuries, the metallurgical industry developed rapidly in Russia, which also contributed a lot to the popularization of copper-cast images. First of all, in the Urals - the then large center of metallurgical production. The production of the metal icon has reached a new level and has become widespread.

An important role in the widespread distribution of the copper-cast icon was played by the fact that the Old Believers' environment was always rich in active, rich and famous people- adherents of the old faith. These include such famous names as the Guchkovs, Demidovs, Morozovs, Ryabushinsky, Tretyakovs and many others. Cast images, which were made in the so-called "coppersmiths", thanks to the patronage of the mighty of the world these have survived to this day and represent real masterpieces of artistic and technical thought of that time. The icons of that period, as a rule, are characterized by the presence of the finest work of the master, skillful silvering or gilding, the use of multi-colored enamel.

Copper looks with enamel

Icon "Reverend Niphon the Demon Slayer", Russia, XIX century

The enamelled metal icon has been known in Russia since the 17th century. The peculiarity of the Russian technique is that the enamel on the icon does not create an image, it serves only as a background for it. In fact, enamel is a coloring for a copper-cast relief. Quite often you can find two identical icons, made according to the same matrix, but at the same time one is covered with enamel, and the other is not.

The 18th century became especially famous in this respect, as they said then, the masters knew how to "direct enamel". The icon made by the masters of the Vygov monastery in Pomorie received particular fame in this direction. The geography of the location and distribution of the copper-cast industry of that time is truly unique: the Vyg River - Upper Kama - Ural - Siberia - Moscow - Baltic. From Moscow, contacts between copper-cast centers extended to Pripyat, the Volga region, Mstera, and Guslitsy; from Starodub and Vetka - to Transbaikalia and Altai. Modern scholars-historians by the type of enamel can quite easily determine where this or that icon was made.

Vygovskaya monastery

The second half of the 19th century presents to our attention new, amazing in design and design, cast products: crosses, folds, icons. These products already look much more professional, have a clear drawing and elaborate relief, all the inscriptions are executed more beautifully. Despite the fact that among the people Old Believer image life is characterized as ascetic, gloomy, restrained, new copper icons evoke a feeling of joy and exultation.

The production of such highly artistic products was possible only in large industrial centers and demanded special attention. As mentioned above, one of these centers was the Vygovskaya monastery (Danilov Monastery on the Vyga River, in Pomorie). It was the "copper" of this enterprise that received all-Russian fame in the production of metal-plastic. Among the products of the Vygovskaya monastery, special attention is drawn to their famous folding of four doors, which was popularly called “ iron". The folding owes this name to the similarity of external forms and considerable weight. Its doors are rectangular, the top is keeled. The gates are interconnected by tubular loops into which a steel rod is inserted. The extreme side panels are assembled first of all, they lie inward, and only then the fold slams shut like a book. The size of the "iron" is about the size of a large man's palm. Inside, there is a whole iconostasis of twelve small hallmarks. Each stamp is a separate image, a multi-figured composition. Most often, the hallmarks depict the Twelve Feasts and the worship of famous icons.

Copper-cast icons on Vyga were made exceptionally clean, without flaws and mistakes, with a clean drawing. The finished icon did not require additional stamping to give clarity to the image. Inscriptions, faces, small details were cast immediately. Often, the reverse sides of the folds were also decorated with ornaments or patterns. Most often, they depicted Calvary in a frame. Historians believe that it was on Vyga in the 17th century that a unique example of iconography was created - a fold with 20 hallmarks. Unfortunately, we do not know the author of this composition, but the fact that he was unusually talented and was a professional of the highest category is beyond doubt. Masters like him successfully worked in the Armory Chamber, in the Moscow Printing House or in the Patriarchal Court. Also, unfortunately, the original original of this foldable has not yet been found. In addition, icons were made in Pomorie in the style of the oldest Novgorod iconography. The most revered of them are George the Victorious, Nikita Besogon, the Miracle Worker Nikola, Paraskeva Pyatnitsa, etc. As a rule, such an icon was not decorated with multicolored enamel or gilding.

Over time, from the beginning of the 19th century, the copper-cast icon became less and less decorated with variegated enamel. The icon of the late period by the Vygov or Pomor craftsmen was often decorated with enamel of the same color. Preference was given to blue, cobalt blue, much less often - white.

The full palette of enamel was only reused in full force at the end of the 19th century. But these were already other masters, other schools, other centers. By this time, the copper-cast industry of the North had almost completely died out.

Casting, established in Russian church art in the pre-Mongol era, is experiencing a rebirth at the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries. At this time, the manufacture of cast icons, folding, various crosses became the property of almost exclusively the Old Believers.

An exception was the production of pectoral crosses, which continued to be cast in workshops that offered their products to the ruling Church.

The spread of cast icons in the Old Believers, and to the greatest extent in pop-free consents, with the official Church almost completely indifferent to it, is explained, first of all, by the historical conditions of existence of the Old Believers.

For two and a half centuries, the Old Believers were severely persecuted by the state authorities, unable to openly build their churches and monasteries. At the same time, the priests and bespopovtsy were not in the same position. The Old Believers, accepting the priesthood, dreamed of finding a bishop and restoring the hierarchy, tried at every opportunity to legalize themselves, to regulate their relations with the authorities, since they needed a condescending attitude towards the priests who passed to them from the ruling Church.

The Old Believers-bespopovtsy were convinced that the spiritual enthronement of the Antichrist had already taken place, therefore the true church can only be persecuted. This conviction found its extreme expression in the ideology of consent of wanderers or runners. It was difficult to constantly transport large church icons to a new place. Bulky icons fell, cracked, broke, the paint layer crumbled, it was difficult to hide them during constant searches. Cast icons turned out to be more suitable for the conditions of constant wandering. Therefore, it is precisely in the pop-free agreements, mainly among the Pomors, that copper casting flourishes.

The set of plots of Old Believer copper casting differs significantly from the corresponding spectrum of pre-Mongol cast products. In the Old Believer coppersmiths, the lunars, characteristic of the transition from paganism to Christianity, with crosses attached to them, were not cast. Round cross-shaped pendants were not produced, in which the sign of the cross was inscribed in the ancient solar symbol. Serpentines, common in the pre-Mongol and early post-Mongol times, were not made.

At the same time, the subject matter is enriched by a multitude of versions known from the usual icon painting. Most of the icon-painting subjects, one way or another, are reproduced in copper casting.

A statistical analysis of copper icons makes it possible to compile a fairly accurate table of the prevalence of individual subjects in Old Believer copper casting:

• The image of the Mother of God - 35%

• Saints - 45%

• Holidays - 11%

• Image of Christ - 9%

The image of the Mother of God:

• Our Lady of All Who Sorrow Joy - 35%

• Mother of God Hodegetria of Smolensk - 25%

• Our Lady of Kazan - 20%

• Our Lady of the Sign - 10%

• Mother of God of Tikhvin - 5%

• The rest of the troubles - 5%

• Nikola - 40%

• Selected Saints (Kirik and Julitta, Gregory the Theologian and John Chrysostom, Paraskeva, Catherine and Barbara) - 12%

• Antipa - 10%

• George - 4%

• Paraskeva - 4%

• Mozhaisky - 3%

• Kirik and Julitta - 2%

• Others - 25%

Holidays:

• Nativity of Christ - 23%

• Nativity of the Virgin - 19%

• Resurrection (Descent into Hell) - 14%

• Old Testament Trinity - 12%

• Crucifixion of Christ - 6%

• Others - 26%

Images of Christ:

• Deesis - 82%

• Savior Image Not Made by Hands - 6%

• Savior the Almighty - 5%

• Weekday - 5%

• Others - 2%

Images of Christ

The Lord Jesus Christ, although he is the Head of the Church, is represented in iconography by a significantly smaller number of iconographic types (with many versions of each type) than the Mother of God and the saints. This is probably due to the fact that it is much easier for a sinful person to turn with a prayer request to a person - the Mother of God or a saint, than to God, even if it is the Incarnate God Jesus Christ.

The most common iconographic type in casting is the Deisus. The Russian word "Deisus" is a distorted Greek word"Deisis" which means prayer. Deesis is an image of Jesus Christ sitting on a throne, to the right of which is the Theotokos, to the left is John the Baptist .. In the Old Believer copper casting, the Deisus is most often the middle of the three-leaf folds, called "nines". Each side panel of such a folding bears an image of selected saints. Most often these are Metropolitan Philip, Apostle John the Theologian, Saint Nicholas - on the left wing; guardian angel, Saints Zosima and Savvaty - on the right. This selection of saints is not accidental. Zosima, Savvaty and Philip are saints, whose deeds were performed in the Solovetsky Monastery, very revered among the Old Believers of Vyga, where the first such folds were cast. The presence of the guardian angel and Nicholas the Wonderworker, the patron saint of travelers, shows that the "nines" were "travel" icons. They were taken on the road, worn as wearable icons. The Calvary cross on the reverse side of one of the doors made it possible to do without a separately worn pectoral cross. Foldings have survived, the midships of which were an ark divided into four parts, of a sufficiently deep depth, tightly closed by a plate with the image of Deisus. Such a folding could be used for storing holy relics or for transferring Holy Gifts, precious for the Old Believers, who were bespopovtsy, consecrated by pre-Nikon priests.

The second, less common, version of the "nine" has doors with a different set of saints: on the left are depicted - the great martyr George the Victorious, the holy martyrs Antipas and Blasii; on the right - the Monk John the Old Caveman and the Martyrs Cosmas and Damian.

There is also a Deesis in the form of tricuspid folds of another type, the middle of which is a half-length image of the Lord Jesus Christ, the leaves are half-length images of the Virgin (a version similar to Bogolyubskaya with a scroll in his hands) and John the Baptist. The image of John the Baptist is variable. Most often, he is depicted as a winged Angel of the desert with a bowl in his hands, which contains the image of the infant Christ; it is a symbolic image of the Baptism of the Lord. The location of the Infant God can be different, both from left to right, and vice versa. In some folds, the right wing represented John without wings, with his hands raised upward in an exquisite gesture.

Sometimes the centerpiece of such a Deesis was cast separately. In this case, he turned into the image of the Lord Almighty. There are also known special images of the Lord Almighty, both half-length and in the form of the Savior on the throne. As a rule, they are of a more ancient age.

More ancient are the folds, in which the middle is the Deesis, in which all three figures are presented in full growth; the sash of such folding can be very different. A fold is quite widespread, in the centerpiece of which, below the full Deesis, there are half-length images of four saints: the Monk Zosima, Saint Nicholas, Saint Leonty, and the Monk Savvaty. Sometimes other saints were also depicted. The top of such a folding could be the Image of Christ Not Made by Hands or decorated with a simple geometric ornament.

A cast icon is known, on which, below the Deesis, there are full-length figures of the Monk Zosima, the Guardian Angel, Saint Nicholas and the Monk Savvaty.

The name "Deesis" is sometimes referred to as a very rare image, in the upper part of which there is a half-length image of the youth of Christ (Savior Emmanuel), on the sides of which are the figures of the Mother of God and St. Nicholas.

Another kind of copper-cast "Deisus" consists of three large icons, united by a common style. The middle one, which has a complex top, is Christ the Almighty, sitting on the throne, the two side ones are cut-out icons of the archangels Michael and Gabriel, elongated vertically. One of the most ancient images of Christ the Savior that existed in copper casting is the so-called Savior of Smolensk. This iconographic type is a full-length depiction of Christ, decorated with a massive tsata, at whose feet the Monks Sergius of Radonezh and Varlaam of Khutynsky fall. On the sides of the Savior, in the upper part of the icon, there are images of angels holding the instruments of the passions in their hands. The Savior of Smolensk is found in the form of individual icons, often decorated with multicolored enamels, and as the middle of various folds.

Another iconographic type of Christ the Savior, depicted surrounded by saints, presented in copper casting, received an incomprehensible name "Weeks", although its correct name is "Savior with the Forthcoming". This is the Deesis, in which the figures of the archangels Michael and Gabriel, the apostles Peter and Paul are added to the images of the Mother of God and John the Baptist, as well as the leaning Zosima and Savvaty. In "Weeks" of a larger format, the figures of the Apostle John the Theologian and St. John Chrysostom are added, as well as the kneeling Nicholas the Wonderworker and St. Sergius of Radonezh.

The Image of the Savior not made by hands is most often found in casting in the form of tops of individual icons and folding ones. This tradition has its origins in the most ancient examples of casting, and the iconography of the image changes very noticeably from the exquisite 17th century versions, which depicted the plate with its bizarre folds to simple, almost schematic images of the 18th and 19th century. The Image Not Made by Hands is also found in the tops of cast crosses of various sizes. It is this type of cross, which, in addition to the Image of Not Made by Hands in the pommel, is distinguished by the absence of the image of the Holy Spirit "in the form of a dove" and "Pilate's title" - the letters INTSI, was considered the only correct cross by the Old Believers of the Pomeranian consent .

The Miraculous Image is also found in the form of separate small specimens. He is known mainly in two versions; moreover, the one in which the Image Not Made by Hands is surrounded by an inscription is more ancient and rare.

Rare ancient cast icons are images of the Descent from the Cross, which depict the naked torso of the dead Christ with arms folded crosswise on his chest, resting on the edge of the coffin. On the sides of the cross, the figures of the forthcoming Mother of God and John the Theologian are visible, made almost in full growth; in the upper part of the icon there are shoulder images of angels in round medallions. By the 19th century, this iconographic type will turn into the image "Do not weep for me, Mother", which is appropriate to refer to the icons of the Theotokos.

Russian icon painters, beginning in the 16th century, dared to depict the Second Hypostasis of the Trinity even before its Incarnation. Although the legitimacy of such allegorical images as Sophia the Wisdom of God in her Novgorod version was disputed by several church cathedrals of the 16th and 17th centuries, they continued to be reproduced until the end of the 19th century. They also found their reflection in copper casting.

The classical iconography of Sophia the Wisdom of God, as well as the symbolism of this image, is extremely complex. However, the central part of the image, which is a kind of "Deesis", in which a winged effeminate figure with angelic wings and a star-shaped halo sits on the throne instead of Christ, is represented in ancient casting by rare casts made long before the split.

The Old Believer copper casting reproduces an abridged version of Sophia, known in iconography since the 17th century under the name "Savior the Good Silence". Silence is a symbol of unspokenness, non-manifestation, non-embodiment. The silence of Sophia is a symbol of the non-incarnation of the Eternal Logos, and Sophia Itself is the Logos before the Incarnation. Thus, the icon "Savior the Good Silence" is the image of Jesus Christ before His Incarnation.

The image "Good Silence" is a half-length image of Sophia in its Novgorod version. This is a winged angel with the face of a young maiden with a star-shaped nimbus inscribed in a circle, dressed in a royal dalmatic, with his arms crossed on his chest. In casting, this image appears only towards the end of the 18th century. It exists either in the form of a small casting, where only an angel is depicted, or in the form of a larger icon, where the angel turns into a centerpiece, inscribed in a frame with 18 round medallions, in which there are waist figures of various saints. These icons, as a rule, were colored with enamels of various shades.

The theological content of this very elegant icon is inferior to the more modest, but no less mysterious image of the Angel of the Great Council. This is what the famous collectors of the 19th century, the Khanenko brothers, call this image of an angel on a cross. The angel himself with a mirror and a measure in his hands resembles the well-known image of the Archangel Michael. However, the presence of the cross behind the angel helps to see in this image a deeper theological content. The Apostle Peter in the First Council Epistle, which is part of the New Testament, calls Jesus Christ the Lamb, destined even before the creation of the world for the slaughter (1 Peter 1, 19-20). The same symbolic image is found in the Apocalypse (Rev. 13.8). At the same time, the prophet Isaiah calls the not yet incarnate Christ the Angel of the Great Council (Isaiah 9.6). Thus, this small image of an angel expresses the deepest theological idea of ​​the infinite love of God for man, God, ready to sacrifice Himself for the salvation of the only being who is the bearer of His Image.

Images of the Virgin

The Mother of God was the closest to the saints to the Russian Orthodox person. Hundreds of iconographic types are known in icon painting, each of which, originating from a particular miraculous icon, has several varieties. Not all of them are found in the products of the Old Believer coppersmiths: some due to the fact that they were little known in Russia (for example, Mammal, Jerusalem, Blakhernskaya, etc.), and some due to the fact that they were very similar to each other ( for example, Smolensk, Iverskaya, Skoroposlushnitsa)

The most common theotokos plot in casting is the image of "Joy to All Who Sorrow". Perhaps this is due to the fact that this icon was one of the last miraculous icons glorified in Russia before the split. This plot is found in small plaques, rather large castings with a dome-shaped top, sometimes framed by cherubs. Tricuspid foldings are quite common, different types whose middlemen represent this image. Unlike icons on wood, where the Mother of God is sometimes depicted with a baby, in casting she is always depicted without a baby with a scepter in her hands. The top of the dome-shaped castings contains the image of Jesus Christ wearing a crown and with outstretched blessing hands; this version in iconography is known under the name "Tsar Tsar". In large casts, the composition of the icon is more detailed than in small ones, where it is limited to the figures of the Mother of God and several suffering people who benefited from her; here angels appear, through whom the Mother of God gives her help, the faces of the sun and moon, symbolizing the continuity of this grace.

The second most common type of casting is the iconographic type of the Smolensk Mother of God. This is one of the many images that go back to the Byzantine image of Hodegetria - the Guide, known in Russia since the 12th century. A feature of this image is the infant Christ, sitting on the left hand of the Virgin; his right hand is folded into a two-fingered blessing, his left is clutching a folded scroll. The faces of the Theotokos and Christ are depicted frontally. On some castings, both the Mother of God and the Christ Child have special neck decorations - tsats. There are icons on which, over the halo of the Virgin Mary, there is a crown. These images are close to the different type of the Skoroposlushnitsa from the Smolensk type.

The image of the Tikhvin Mother of God is also close to Smolensk. The difference is that the faces of the Mother of God and Christ are facing each other, and the baby's right leg is tucked under the left so that the lower part of the foot is visible.

Kazan is another icon of the Mother of God widely known in Russia. Acquired in 1579, it remained among the locally revered, that is, not revered outside of a certain region of the icons, until the fall of 1612. The people's militia, which liberated Moscow from the Poles and Lithuanians, moved to the capital with this miraculous icon. Since that time, Kazan has become a national shrine of the Russian state: most of the churches and monasteries built in the 17th century were consecrated in honor of this icon. Distinctive feature Kazan is that the infant Christ is depicted standing. His left hand is hidden in the folds of his clothes, his right is folded into a two-fingered blessing. The image of the Mother of God is shoulder-worn; her hands are not visible at all. On separate icons, the Theotokos and Christ have tsats. In copper casting, the image of the Kazan Mother of God is presented in products of different sizes with a wide variety of tops. A wide variety of folds are widespread, in which the centerpiece - less often one of the doors - represents the Kazan icon.

Among the ancient icons of the Mother of God, the icon of the Sign, originating from Novgorod, occupies a special place. In copper casting, this image is represented by several types of products. The "simple" Sign is a half-length image of the Mother of God with raised hands, in the center of which there is also a half-length image of the infant Christ, sometimes inscribed in a circle. The infant's right hand - sometimes both - is folded into a two-fingered blessing. There is another common version of the Sign, in which the Virgin and Child are in the middle of a rhombus formed by slightly concave lines, at the corners of which are the symbols of the Evangelists. In the rare, most ancient and most beautiful casts, the composition of the Sign is framed by two cherubs. The omen can be part of miniature bivalve - less often three-winged - folding. One of the rarest folds is the so-called panagia - a fold, consisting of two round leaves, one of which is the image of the Sign, the other - the image of the Old Testament Trinity.

Among other iconographic types of the Virgin, known in casting, the most interesting are the Three-handed, Vladimirskaya, Burning Kupina, Passionate, Bogolyubskaya, and Pokrov.

Three-handed is a very interesting iconographic type that appeared in Byzantium at the end of the 8th century. Some art historians associate the appearance of this image with the influence of the iconography of Hinduism, where many-armed deities were a familiar reality. However, it is more likely that the Three-handed person appears as an "icon of an icon", that is, an image of the icon of the Mother of God, to which a healed person has attached a silver or gold image of an aching hand. Church tradition connects the appearance of the image of the Three-handed woman with the name of John Damascene, a learned monk, theologian and hymnographer who occupied an important position at the court of the Damascus ruler in the 8th century. At the direction of the iconoclast emperor Constantine Copronymus, John, who wrote several works in defense of the veneration of icons, had his right hand cut off, which subsequently merged safely with the body. John Damascene was the man who hung the image of the hand to the image in front of which he prayed for healing. In copper casting, the Three-handed is rare. It is a small copper plate with an unusual decorative frame.

The Vladimir icon, the first national shrine of Russia, brought from Byzantium in the middle of the 12th century, is relatively rarely reproduced in copper casting. Vladimirskaya belongs to the ancient Byzantine iconographic type Tenderness. The Infant Christ is on the right hand of the Mother of God, presses against her so tightly that the palm of his left hand, clasping his neck, becomes visible. The baby's left leg is tucked under the right so that the lower part of the foot is visible. The Vladimir icon is known both in independent casts and as a centerpiece in three-fold folding. There are known casts of the Vladimir icon, in which the head of the Mother of God is crowned with a crown.

The iconographic type of the Fedorov Icon of the Mother of God, which was considered the patroness of the Reigning House of the Romanovs, is close to the Vladimir icon. The difference lies in the free position of the baby's legs.

The Burning Bush is the most complex and multi-figured icon. In the circle formed by angels with outstretched wings there is a half-length image of the Mother of God with the Christ child, similar to Hodegetria. This circle is the central part of an eight-pointed star, in the rays of which there are symbols of the evangelists and images of various angelic ranks. Angels are also depicted in the space between the rays of the star. In the corners of the icon there are four compositions dedicated to the Old Testament prophecies of the Mother of God: Moses in front of the Burning Bush, Jesse under the tree of the family of David, Jacob's Ladder and the prophecy of Ezekiel. The Burning Bush is often decorated with multi-colored enamels, which make the icon very attractive. Particularly beautiful are large icons, on which, above the image of the Burning Bush, in five round medallions, half-length images of the Apostle Peter, the Mother of God, Jesus Christ, John the Baptist, the Apostle Paul are depicted.

Equally multi-figured, although less interesting than the Burning Bush, is the icon of the Intercession of the Most Holy Theotokos.

The Passionate Icon of the Mother of God is a half-length image of the Hodegetria type, in which the Mother of God and the baby are surrounded by angels who hold the instruments of passion in their hands. The baby's head is turned back towards one of the angels. The head of the Mother of God is crowned with a jagged crown extending beyond the upper edge of the icon. The passionate is often crowned with five cherubs; often she is the middle of a tricuspid folding.

The Bogolyubskaya icon of the Virgin, known since the end of the 12th century, is an image of the Mother of God without a baby, in full growth with a scroll in her hands. In copper casting, one of the rare editions of a later period is widespread, in which, in addition to the Mother of God, Metropolitan Peter and several kneeling figures are depicted standing in front of her. The half-length image of the Mother of God with a scroll, close to Bogolyubskaya, forms the left wing of the sa most common tricuspid folding Deisus.

Very beautiful and unusual is the Mother of God image "Do not weep for me, Mati", which depicts the Savior taken from the cross. This "Russian pieta" has a very laconic and at the same time expressive iconography. On the background of the upper part of the cross, there are half-length images of the dead Jesus with his hands folded on his chest and the Mother bowing to him. They lean against the wall of the coffin, in which the body is to be placed. This image is known in archaic casts from the 17th century and in realistic icons from the 18th and 19th centuries.

Holiday stories

In the Old Believer casting, festive plots occupy a large place. Basically, these are the images of the main church holidays, which by their number (12) are called "twins". Only one holiday, the Resurrection of Christ, has a higher status, which is also quite fully represented in ancient casting.

Among the "travel" icons worn on the body during travels of the 16th-17th centuries, "festive" images are remarkable for their richness, where up to twelve holidays are placed on a space of several square centimeters. Similar images, in which the images of saints took the place of holidays, were distinguished by the same laconicism.

All twelve holidays are united in the shutters of the well-known three-winged folding fold, which was originally cast, most likely, in the Vyga coppersmiths. A feature of this folding is the absence of a plot of the Exaltation of the Cross, instead of which the Resurrection is inserted. The appearance of this fold is associated with the theme of the iconostasis, which is the most noticeable and necessary part of an Orthodox church. The iconostasis is the first thing that catches the eye of every person who enters an Orthodox church. This is a symbol of the unity of the earthly Church, consisting of believers living on earth, and the Heavenly Church, which includes the saints glorified by God. The Russian man became so close to the iconostasis that he wanted to have it with him even when there was no opportunity to visit the church.

For centuries, the Old Believers, persecuted by the authorities, did not have the opportunity to pray in real, properly built churches. The few churches built under the three monarchs condescendingly, referring to the adherents of the old faith: Catherine II, Paul and Alexander the First, - during the reign of Emperor Nikolai Pavlovich were either forcibly transferred to common faith, or were deprived of crosses on domes and bells on bell towers; the altars of temples that did not join the Unity remained sealed for half a century. Old Believers accepting the priesthood were rescued by the so-called marching churches, which were vast linen tents, which housed marching iconostases - wooden folds, consisting of one and a half or more dozen doors, depicting all five tiers of the classic Russian iconostasis.

The Old Believers bespopovtsy did not need an iconostasis, since there were no altars in their chapels. The absence of priests did not allow serving the Liturgy, celebrating the Sacrament of the Eucharist (Communion), the only one that should be performed at the altar. However, the iconostasis was the strongest reminder of the lost fullness of church life. The love for him was so irresistible that the eastern wall in the prayer house, in which there were not only the Royal Doors, but no doors at all, was tightly hung with icons arranged in the canonical order of the iconostasis.

The first folding iconostases were double-leaf compositions depicting the main part of the iconostasis, local icons of the Savior and the Mother of God, which are placed in the stationary iconostasis on the sides of the Royal Doors. The northern origin of this fold is obvious: the Mother of God was represented by the ancient Novgorod shrine - the icon of the Sign, the image of the Savior was replaced Old Testament Trinity... Along with this laconic replica of the local rank of the iconostasis, a three-winged Deesis appears, which immediately appears in a fairly complete form of the so-called "nine" (actually Deesis - on the centerpiece and three saints on the doors) and only then is limited to three images of the Savior, the Mother of God and John Forerunners, one on each leaf. A three-leaf folding with images of twelve major holidays becomes the image of the festive rite of the classic Russian iconostasis.

Already at the beginning of the 18th century, the three-winged folding with twelve-year holidays was expanded into the so-called "large sections". A fourth wing appears, which depicts the acquisition of four miraculous icons, the most revered in the Russian Church in pre-Nikon times. This is the acquisition of the Smolensk Icon of the Mother of God with selected saints; the meeting (meeting) of the Vladimir icon with the revered Moscow miracle workers; the appearance of the Tikhvin icon with selected saints; and the image of the Mother of God of the Sign with the Novgorod saints. The doors are crowned with domed pommels, in which four more plots are placed: Crucifixion with the forthcoming, New Testament Trinity surrounded by angels; Exaltation of the Cross and Praise of the Virgin. Colored with numerous enamels, sometimes gilded, these "large gates" became real travel iconostases, which, together with the prayers of pilgrims, absorbed the history of huge Old Believer families, whole accords, wandering over vast areas from the Austro-Hungarian border to Eastern Siberia.

Large sections were cast, probably, in the largest circulations - every Old Believer family wanted to have a traveling iconostasis. However, few of them have survived to this day in full four-winged composition. The godless power even destroyed the old believers' way of life, which had been tested for centuries. family life... The family collapsed, the sons went to the side, and when the last keeper of the family iconostasis died, the fold was dismantled into sashes, each of which went to a new family. To this day, in many families who barely remember their Old Believer roots, separate doors of the festive folding are kept darkened, worn out almost to the point of complete indistinguishability.

Molds for casting holiday folds were usually assembled from separate dies. Therefore, all the plots of the four-leaf festive folding, including the tops, existed in the form of separate castings. The difference in the frequency of these small icons is associated with a different attitude towards the holidays, the status of which in the church calendar was the same. For example, the feast of the Lord's Entry into Jerusalem (Palm Sunday) was lost in the shadow of Easter, which came exactly one week after Palm Sunday; the feast of Epiphany (Epiphany) became invisible after the Nativity of Christ and the almost two-week Christmastide with their inevitable festivities. Relatively rare were the subjects of the Introduction to the Temple, the Presentation, the Ascension.

Many holiday plots appeared in casting long before foldings imitating the iconostasis began to be cast. The ancient icons of the Nativity of Christ are very touching, on which there are figures of bowed angels and the figure of Joseph alone in his detachment from the event, and a swaddled figure of the infant Christ lying in a manger, over which a melancholic cow is bending. In the lower part of the icon there is an image of a round font, in which Jesus is bathed. The counterpoint of the complex composition is the Star of Bethlehem, located at the top of the icon. Magi with gifts appear in casts of the 19th century, and next to Joseph appears the figure of an old man leaning on a staff. it evil spirit, confusing the righteous with an indication of the unusual circumstances of the appearance of the Divine Infant.

Almost more often than the Nativity of Christ, the Nativity of the Virgin is found in copper casting, known in castings of various sizes. The prevalence of the plot is probably due to the fact that this holiday (September 21, new style) was the first big holiday of the church year, which began on September 1. In addition, the icon depicts the parents of the Virgin Mary, the saints and righteous Joachim and Anna, who for a long time did not have children, and to whom the childless spouses prayed.

Quite often, the plot of the Resurrection of Christ is embodied in copper casting. The moment of Resurrection was hidden from the observant human eye. The wives of the myrrh-bearer discovered an empty coffin, in which lay the remains of the cloth in which the Body of Jesus was wrapped. Therefore, classical Byzantine iconography knew only two images of the Resurrection: the appearance of an angel to the myrrh-bearing wives and the descent into hell. These iconographic types were also established in Russian icon painting, and only the last of them originally existed in copper casting. Until the end of the 18th century, in copper casting, the Resurrection of Christ was embodied only in the form of the Descent into Hell. Christ was depicted standing on the crossed boards of the overthrown infernal gates; he stretched out his hand to Adam, raising with him from hell the souls of all sinners there. Towards the end of the 18th century, this iconography becomes somewhat more complicated: an allegorical depiction of hell appears in the form of a gaping toothy mouth; some of the castings bear the image of three Calvary crosses.

In the 19th century, in Russian iconography, a previously unknown image of Christ rising from the sepulcher, who came from the Catholic West, appeared in Russian iconography, carrying a certain banner in his hands and surrounded by angels leaning towards him. The iconography of the Resurrection in copper plastic became extremely complicated at this time. Above the composition of Descent into Hell, there is a Latin image of the risen Christ. Appear: the angel slaying demons, the Apostle Peter, crouching to the tomb, the angels who are in it. Sinners raised from hell ascend to heaven, the entrance to which is guarded by a seraphim placed immediately after the expulsion of Adam and Eve. In paradise, the sinners who have become righteous are awaited by three lucky ones who got there before the Resurrection of Christ: these are the Old Testament forefather Enoch, the prophet Elijah and the prudent robber Rach.

In several versions, the plot of the Assumption was embodied - one of the favorite Russian holidays. Even on the smallest "vershok" icons, it was possible to place the bed with the body of the Mother of God, and Christ receiving her soul, and the apostles who arrived at the burial and the six-winged seraphim standing at the entrance to paradise; an angel was also depicted swelling with the sword of the hand of an impious Jew who intended to overturn the bed of the Virgin. Along with these miniatures, in the second half of the 19th century, large icons of the Assumption were cast, in the upper part of which there were half-length images of the apostles, carried on the clouds to the burial place of the Virgin.

The iconography of the Annunciation in copper casting has at least two versions. Only the Virgin Mary and the Archangel Gabriel are depicted in small icons; the swift movement of the Holy Spirit is emphasized by oblique strokes. In the larger icons, the plot is enriched with the image of God the Father bowed, sitting on a lush cloud and blessing Mary. In this case, the interior has been worked out in more detail.

The embodiment of the Exaltation of the Cross plot is very interesting. Copper icons with the Exaltation of the Cross are somewhat larger than other holidays. In the center - Patriarch Macarius, raising (erecting) the authentic cross of Christ found during excavations. His hands are supported by two deacons. To the left of the Patriarch is the Equal-to-the-Apostles Emperor Constantine the Great. On the right is his mother, Empress Elena, who organized the search for the cross.

Equally beautiful is the Entry into Jerusalem (Palm Sunday). In the center of the composition is Christ sitting on a donkey. His disciples - the apostles follow him. On the right - against the background of the Jerusalem Temple, the inhabitants of the capital of Judea with palm branches in their hands.

Ascension also belongs to the multi-figured compositions that have found embodiment in casting. The ascended Christ himself is depicted in a circle, which is raised by four angels. Below, the apostles and the Mother of God are depicted in full length.

The Epiphany (Epiphany) plot is an abridged version of the typical iconography of the holiday. John the Baptist immerses Christ in the waters of the Jordan; He is met by the angels on the right; above him in the clouds is God the Father and the Holy Spirit issuing from him in the form of a dove.

Equally laconic is the icon of the holiday of the Transfiguration. In the Center, surrounded by radiance, Christ with the upcoming prophets Moses (right) and Elijah (left). Below - three kneeling figures of the apostles Peter, John and James. The rays of light emanating from Christ with considerable physical force bend them to the ground.

Externally similar plots of the Introduction and the Meeting are quite rare. The similarity lies in the fact that the action in both cases takes place in the Jerusalem temple and the priest participates in it. In the Meeting, this is Elder Simeon, who meets the Holy Family, bringing the infant Christ to the temple. In the plot of the Introduction, the priest's name is Zachariah. He meets the baby Mary, the future Mother of God, who is brought to the temple by her parents Joachim and Anna.

The Orthodox holiday of the Trinity is embodied in two iconographic subjects. Firstly, this is the Descent of the Holy Spirit on the Apostles and the Mother of God, the event to which the holiday is dedicated. Secondly, it is the Old Testament Trinity - three angels, symbolizing the three Hypostases of the Divine who appeared to the forefather Abraham. The descent of the Holy Spirit in the Old Believer casting is represented by a few products that are not widespread outside the "large range". The Mother of God, placed in the center of the icon, is surrounded by the apostles. Above it, in a semicircle, the Holy Spirit is depicted "in the form of a dove." Here you can see a clear discrepancy with the canon: according to the book of the Acts of the Holy Apostles and canonical iconography, the descent of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost occurs not in the form of a dove, but in the form of tongues of flame.

The Old Testament Trinity is found in a greater number of versions. At the heart of each of them is an image of three angels sitting at a table with a prepared meal; in the background, a stylized image of the Mamre oak is a characteristic detail of this plot. Interesting are rare casts on which angels are decorated with massive tsats. A possible prototype of these copper-cast icons were icons on wood, covered with frames, on which tsats were common details in the 17th century. An interesting round icon, an icon imitating a panagia, with a pommel in the form of the Savior Not Made by Hands, on which, in addition to three angels, is depicted serving Abraham and Sarah, and with them a slave slaughtering a lamb who will be served on the table.

The Crucifixion should also be attributed to the festive themes. At the same time, icons depicting the crucified Christ are found much less often than individual crucifixes. The iconography of the Crucifixion is simple. In addition to the cross with the crucified Savior, the icon usually depicts four coming ones: the Mother of God and Saint Mary on the left, John the Theologian and centurion Longinus on the right. There are rare icons depicting a crucifixion, in which two persons to come are depicted in full growth, and two more are placed on top in a half-length image. Crucifixions without any forthcoming are even more rare.

The icons with the archaic form of the Crucifixion with two standing ones are very elegant, which is surrounded by ten round medallions with half-length images of saints: the upper row is Deesis, below - symmetrical paired images of the archangels Michael and Gabriel, the apostles Peter and Paul; the bottom row represents Metropolitan Alexy, Leonty of Rostov and St. Sergius of Radonezh.

By their meaning, 4 great holidays are approaching the twelveth holiday, of which three are reflected in the casting. These are the holidays of the Protection of the Most Holy Theotokos, the Nativity of John the Baptist and the Beheading of John the Baptist.

Icon of the Intercession - depicts the vision of the Virgin in the Blachernae Church of Constantinople during the siege of the city by the Saracens. There are two planes on the icon - earthly and heavenly. In the lower part of the icon there is an image of the temple, praying, Blessed Andrew pointing to his disciple Epiphanius to heaven. Deacon Roman the Sweet Songwriter, who received from the Mother of God the gift of composing church hymns, is also here. This is a side plot that is not directly related to the holiday of the Intercession. In the upper plan - the image of the Mother of God, surrounded by the faces of the saints in front of Jesus Christ. In her hands she holds an omophorion (veil), which is a symbol of her intercession. Copper casting reproduces one later version of this iconographic type. It differs in that the Mother of God is depicted not in the center, as in the ancient editions, but in the left part, half-turned. Sometimes the cast icons of the Intercession have a pommel in the form of an image of Christ - Tsar Tsar, the Old Testament Trinity or the New Testament Trinity.

The holidays of the Nativity and the Beheading of John the Baptist are combined in one casting. At the top of the icon is the Lord Almighty in the clouds, on the left is Christmas, on the right is Beheading.

Images of saints

Saints in Old Believer casting are not particularly numerous. Of the hundreds of names included in the calendar, no more than two dozen saints are embodied in casting. At the same time, the Archangel Michael, most common in pre-Mongol casting, almost disappears in the Old Believer.

Cast icons with images of saints are best classified by the number of images.

A lone saint on cast Old Believer icons may be: Nicholas the Wonderworker (he is also Saint Nicholas, Nicholas of Mirlikisky, Nicholas), Hieromartyr Antipas, Great Martyr George the Victorious, Martyr Dmitry Thessaloniki, Venerable Sergius of Radonezh, Saint Tikhon, the Apostle John the Theologian - the demon, the martyr Paraskeva-Friday, the martyr Uar, the martyr Tryphon, the Monk Paisios, the Monk Niphon and the Monk Mara.

Most often there are cast icons of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker, the most revered saint in Russia. The Old Believers recognized only the ancient form of the name of this saint - Nikola, which was placed on the icons. Nikola's iconography is a variation of two versions: Nikola Zaraisky - with the Gospel (it can be closed and open) in his hands and Nikola Mozhaisky - full-length, with a temple in his left hand and a sword in his left.

Nikola Mozhaisky is found much less frequently in casting, which corresponds to the ratio of these images in an ordinary wooden icon. A characteristic feature of Nikola's iconography is the presence of half-length images of Christ and the Mother of God, holding out the Gospel and omophorion to the saint - signs of his episcopal dignity. This feature is associated with one hagiographic episode. Saint Nicholas denounced the heresiarch Arius at the First Ecumenical Council so passionately that in the heat of the polemics he struck him on the cheek. Such assault was considered a sin, and Saint Nicholas was stripped of his episcopal rank. It was returned to him only after Christ Himself and the Mother of God appeared in a dream to the influential participants in the Council and pointed out the incorrectness of their decision. Occasionally, instead of Christ and the Mother of God, Nikola is surrounded by images of two saints.

Nikola's waist pictures come in a wide variety of sizes. They are part of a wide variety of folds. From small wearable icons to very large icons decorated with multicolor enamels. The most common are the so-called "vershok" icons, where Nikola is depicted with the forthcoming Zosima and Savvaty Solovetsky.

Icons with Nikolai Mozhaisky are also diverse. Foldings with the image of this saint became widespread. Small carved icons dating back to the 17th century are very beautiful. Occasionally there are icons of Nikolai Mozhaisky, on which two scenes from his life are depicted on either side of the saint.

The next after Nicholas in terms of distribution is the image of the Hieromartyr Antipas, Bishop of Pergamon. Antipas is known for his small icons and middle pieces of numerous folds. His appearance is distinguished by a long wavy beard and curls on his head. Larger icons covered with floral ornaments are known, often covered with multi-colored enamels. The most beautiful of them have the image of Deesis in three round medallions located over the head of the saint. On some castings with the image of Antipas, the letters Z and C are visible, which means the Tooth Healer. Antipa is believed to help in the treatment of toothache.

The image of St. George the Victorious is also quite common in copper casting. Probably, the tradition of making cast images of George has not been interrupted since pre-Mongol times. Old Believers made both small icons with George and larger icons, often decorated with enamels. Icons such as mullions were inserted into folds with various doors. There are carved icons of at least three different types dating back to the 17th century. George's iconography is traditional. He is depicted sitting on a horse, striking a defeated winged dragon with a spear. The staging of the figure of the saint is variable. Its head may be facing forward or, less commonly, half-turned backward. In the upper right corner, the blessing right hand of God is visible in the clouds. There are icons on which, above the figure of the saint, there is a half-length image of Christ-Emmanuel (the youth), with a blessing gesture of both hands.

Even more than George, another martyr was venerated in pre-Mongol Russia - the warrior Dmitry Solunsky. In Old Believer casting, the image of this saint is known mainly in one very elegant casting. The central part of this icon depicts Dmitry sitting on a horse and beating with a spear the wicked pagan Leah, who was thrown to the ground. In general, Dmitry's iconography is very similar to that of George. However, where George has a dragon, Dmitry has a defeated warrior Leah. Above the image of Dmitry in the icon in question is the Savior Not Made by Hands, on either side of which there are four waist images; on the left - Prince Vladimir and John Chrysostom, below - the Monk Sava and Saint Meletius; on the right - Saint Athanasius and Emperor Constantine, below - Saint Lazarus and Saint Paphnutius. To the left of the very image of Dmitry is a column with three saints: the Monk John of Damascus, Prince Boris, the Martyr Florus; right the same column: the Monk Ephraim the Syrian, the prince Gleb, the martyr Laurus. The lower row is formed by the half-length figures of six holy hermit dwellers: the Monks Mary of Egypt, Onuphrius, Peter the Athonite, African, Maron, Alexei God's man. This very ornate icon was usually decorated with numerous enamels. Images of Dmitry Solunsky were occasionally placed on the middle of the three-fold folding.

Ilya was one of the favorite saints of Ancient Russia. It is difficult to understand why the prophet, who denounced the wicked Israeli kings in the 9th century BC, becomes a completely Russian saint, responsible for thunder and lightning, as well as for the timely supply of rain. This is probably due to the fact that one of the first Kiev Christian churches, built long before the Baptism of Rus, was Ilyinskaya. Specific traits Perun, the main deity of the ancient Slavic pantheon, united with Ilya, whom the Kievans who were not rooted in the new faith for a long time considered more important than Christ. In casting, Ilya has been known since ancient times. The composition of the Fiery Ascent was embodied in small icons, which existed both independently and were middle and (less often) folding sashes. In larger icons, it was supplemented by several more scenes of hagiography.

Orthodox women in Russia traditionally venerated the martyr Paraskeva-Friday. The image of this saint is also quite common, but only in small copper-cast icons. Usually these are half-length images in which Paraskeva holds a cross in his right hand and an unfolded scroll in his left. Occasionally Saint Paraskeva is crowned with a crown. Even more rarely, two saints are depicted in the upper part of the icon.

The Monk Sergius of Radonezh is portrayed in a monastic robe, with an open head. His expression is very good-natured. Castings with the image of St. Sergius vary in size. In most of them above the head of St. Sergius there is an image of the Holy Trinity, in honor of which the first church of his monastery was consecrated.

The Monk Niphon, who was considered to be "the exorcist of demons", is represented by the only icon on which the saint is depicted in a monk's doll with a scroll in his hands. The Monk Mara is similar to him, who, unlike Niphont, is cast bald and with an uncovered head.

The Monk Tikhon in Old Believer casting is represented by one small image, in which the saint is depicted in a mantle and a monastic doll.

The apostle and evangelist John the Theologian is represented in the same way with a figurative ending. This is the famous composition "John the Theologian in Silence", where an eagle is depicted next to the seated apostle - his iconographic symbol.

Very touching small icons depicting the martyr Nikita beating the demon. This image dates back to the pre-Mongol era. In the 15th - 17th centuries, pectoral crosses with the image of Nikita the Besogon were very common. The image of a saint who defeated evil spirits was considered good remedy against the mischief of demons.

Among the copper-cast icons with images of single saints, there are small icons of the martyrs Paisius, Huar and Tryphon, which have a similar style. The appearance of these saints is due to their special function in the life of a Russian person. They prayed to the Martyr Tryphon at danger from enemies; this saint helped in the expulsion of all kinds of insect pests from the fields and vegetable gardens. The Canon was read to the martyr Uaru for those who died without repentance; they prayed for the repose of those careless Christians, over whom the priest refused to sing the burial. In addition, they prayed to the Martyr Paisius for the repose of the suicides.

There are few icons depicting two saints. These are the images of the princes of the passion-bearers Boris and Gleb, Kirik and Ulita, Blasius and Athanasius, the Monks Zosima and Savvaty.

Boris and Gleb were the first saints glorified by the Russian Church. The sons of Vladimir, who baptized Russia, killed by their brother Svyatopolk the Accursed, young Boris and Gleb were considered the embodiment of Christian humility and defenders of all unjustly offended people. In casting, Boris and Gleb are always portrayed as horsemen. Round body images depicting the two holy princes appeared long before the Mongol invasion. A very beautiful carved icon depicting Boris and Gleb sitting on horses, with mines decorated with flags in their hands. The icon is crowned with a round medallion with the image of the Trinity, above which there is a small plate with the image of the Savior Not Made by Hands, in which there is a hole for the Gaitan. This iconography is repeated in other images, which are of different sizes. In later casts, the caps on the heads of the princes are replaced by helmets.

Images of the martyr Julita and her baby son Kirik should also be attributed to images common in casting. Julita is depicted with a cross in her hand, Kirik with his hands folded on his chest. Small images made in the spirit of touching naivety are very attractive. They depict Kirik and Iulita surrounded by flowers of a fantastic size. Such images were often used as mullions of tricuspid folds. The image of Kirik and Iulita is included in a fairly common four-part icon, where, on an area of ​​several square centimeters, in addition to them, plots can be placed: The Image Not Made by Hands, the Vladimir Mother of God, the Mother of God of the Sign. A small icon with selected saints is very common, where in top row depicts the martyrs Paraskeva, Evdokia and Barbara, in the lower in height - Basil the Great, Gregory the Theologian, Kirik and Julita.

Blasius and Athanasius were portrayed very simply, in the form of standing figures, dressed in felonies, covered with bishop's homophores. These icons often became the middle of the folds.

A small icon depicting the Apostle John the Theologian and his disciple Prokhor is quite rare. Among the saints there is an image of the Savior Not Made by Hands, under which is a conventional image of Heavenly Jerusalem.

The Monks Zosima and Savvaty were especially loved by the Old Believers, since the Solovetsky Monastery founded by them for a very long time resisted the reforms of Patriarch Nikon, who, incidentally, was also one of the Solovetsky monastic brethren. Zosima and Savvaty cast against the background of the Solovetsky archipelago; in their hands they held a model of their monastery. Particularly touching are the icons, on which, with the help of white and blue enamel, the casters depicted the sea on which the monastery stood.

The images of the three saints in Old Believer casting are represented by a few icons. In the form of separate icons, the folds of the folding "nines" were cast, the centerpiece of which was Deesis. These are icons depicting Metropolitan Philip, Nicholas the Wonderworker and John the Theologian; The Guardian Angel, Saints Zosima and Savvaty; Great Martyr George, Hieromartyrs Antipas and Blasias; St. John the Old Cave, Martyrs Cosmas and Damian.

Icons of three saints were very common: Gregory the Theologian, Basil the Great and John Chrysostom. This image is known in two versions. One of them, more ancient, represents the great teachers of the church in full growth in a frontal composition. Another, which appeared not without the influence of the Baroque, depicts the saint in freer and more relaxed poses; this image is known as "Conversation".

The icon of the Monks John of Levichnik, John of Damascus, and Alexy the Man of God is similar to the three-priestly image in its first simplified version.

The great martyr and healer Panteleimon, surrounded by the holy martyrs Zadok and Athenogenes, form another icon of the "troika". The Hieromartyr Antipas, surrounded by the martyrs Florus and Laurus, was cast both as a separate icon and as the middle of the fold.

Among the saints revered among the people, a special place was occupied by the martyrs Guri, Samon and Aviv, who were considered the patrons of marriage. There are known small cast images with full-face depictions of these saints.

The height-profile images of the martyrs John the Warrior, Harlampy and Boniface are characteristic of yet another cast icon of "vershok" size. They prayed to John the Warrior for the return of a stolen or lost thing, the martyr Bonifatius helped from an excessive addiction to wine.

Similar icons of the "troika" were cast with images of the martyrs Paraskeva Pyatnitsa, Catherine and Barbara; Paraskeva Friday, St. Nicholas, St. Tikhon. It should be noted that Saint Tikhon, depicted in a phelonion with the bishop's omophorion, is not the Monk Tikhon, who is better known in icons with the only saint.

A rather rare icon is a small icon with the image of the Virgin of the Sign, on which the martyrs Tikhon, Mina and Paraskeva Friday are depicted in the bottom row.

Icons depicting more saints are very few in number. There is a well-known icon depicting five saints: the holy martyrs Modest, Blasius, the Monk Nile, the martyrs Florus and Laurus. There is an icon with six saints: the martyrs Evdokia Barbara, Julita, Ekaterina, Paraskeva Friday are depicted in a row. Before Julita stands her son, the infant martyr Kirik. At the top of this icon is Savior Emmanuel in the clouds.

On the most multi-figured icon with images of saints, they are depicted in two rows: the upper one - the noble princess Fevronia, the martyrs Paraskeva Friday, Catherine, Evdokia Alexandra, the Monk Mary of Egypt; in the bottom row - St. Basil the Great, the noble prince Peter, the martyr Julitta, the Apostle Herodion, the Monk Paisius the Great; before Julita stands her son, the infant martyr Kirik. There are twelve saints in total.

Another twelve-figure icon represents, as it were, two connected folding doors. On the left side, from top to bottom, there are belt images.

The icons described in the article certainly do not exhaust the whole variety of Old Believer copper casting. Numerous variations within not only one iconographic type, but also within one edition, would require such a detailed writing that the volume of the article could increase very significantly. In addition, icons remained undescribed, cast in a small number of copies, which were not subsequently replicated. The icons and folds cast before the split were also not considered, which, although they were in the hands of the Old Believers, cannot be called Old Believers proper; they belong general culture Russian Church. The article does not specifically touch upon the issue of various modifications of folds, variations of iconography in their centerpieces and shutters.

A special and very extensive section in the study of Old Believer copper casting is the description of various crucifixes, pectoral, iconic, altar crosses, which, unlike worn crosses, were cast in a very wide iconographic spectrum. This issue requires separate consideration.

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The day after tomorrow, January 12, 2014 in the Sunday lecture hall "Old Believer icon painting" there will be a lesson dedicated to copper casting Guslits. This lesson will conclude a small block on this center. It was Guslitsy that was an outstanding center of copper foundry among the Old Believers-priests.

In the first half of the 19th century, the classification of copper casting was of interest not only to historians and archaeologists, but also to officials of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. So, in one of the documents of the 1840s it says: “... excellent copper crosses and icons, known under the names: Zagarskie, Pomor, Pogost and others, of which the first two varieties are cast in Moscow, and the last in the Vladimir province.

The use of these icons and crosses, as you know, is ubiquitous throughout Russia, it has taken root for a long time among the common people, not excluding persons of the Orthodox confession, so these icons are found in almost all huts and other dwellings and are hung in villages above the gates of houses , on ships and so on. Moreover, with these icons, the peasants bless their children who leave on long journeys or enter recruits, and these images then remain with them for a lifetime ... ”.

As noted by the well-known expert in the field of Old Believer copper-cast plastics E.Ya. Zotova, this official document is the first known to researchers to attempt to classify copper casting. In addition, the document contains important information about the existence of casting works. But the document contains only 3 grades of copper casting: Pomorskoe, Zagarskoe and Pogostskoe ... And guslitskoe? ....

The mention of guslitsky casting is first encountered in the works of the Vladimir local historian I.A. Golysheva: “Copper icons are divided into 4 categories: Zagarsk (guslitsky), Nikologorsky (Nikologorsky churchyard), old or Pomor (for the schismatics of the Pomor sect), and new”.

Pomorskoye, Pogostskoye, Zagarskoye, Guslitskoye ... All these types of casting differed not only in the place of production, but also in the environment in which they lived (Pomor casting was common among the Bezpopites, and Guslitsky among the priests), and artistic features, and even the method of sale. Icons and crosses of "the best Pomor work" were sold individually, while other categories of copper-cast products were sold by weight at a price per pood.

In guslitsky villages, a very large number of images, folds, crosses were cast. Some of them were sent for sale to Moscow, others to other Old Believer centers. The works of Guslitsky craftsmen differ from Pomor casting in typology, plasticity and technological features.

As E.Ya. Zotov, the main place in the "repertoire" of guslitsky casting was occupied by crosses, which differed not only in a certain iconographic program, but also in compositional diversity. For example, in Guslitsy, a special type of 8-pointed cross was cast, which became widespread throughout Russia: Crucifixion with instruments of passion, with large relief letters of the Pilatus titles "I.N.TS.I.", with the image of the Lord of hosts in the clouds and descending from Him the Holy Spirit in the form of a dove.

Above, guslitsky crosses and icons were decorated with carved cherubs and seraphims. The most expressive products of this center are the large 8-pointed crosses depicting the Crucifixion with the forthcoming ones, the stamps of the holidays and the peculiar pommel of their figurines of seraphim and cherubim.

The lesson will be conducted by Elena Yakovlevna Zotova, Candidate of Historical Sciences, Senior Researcher of the Museum, Curator of the Copper Casting Fund. At the end of the lesson, a small practical part is supposed, during which everyone will be able to "live" to get acquainted with the works of guslyak casters.

The lecture will take place in the concert and lecture hall of the Museum (4th floor of the exposition).
The beginning of the lesson is at 12.30.

Ticket price for this lesson:
adults - 150 rubles
students, schoolchildren, pensioners - 100 rubles.
students of the Moscow Old Believer Theological School - free of charge (at the box office, you must show a certificate).
We remind you that tickets for the lecture hall can be bought ONLY AT THE MUSEUM CASH OFFER.

The Bronze Horseman, a monument sculpted by Falconet, was an allegorical depiction of Peter and his deeds. Long before the opening of the monument, back in 1768, by order of Catherine II, its plaster model was exposed for public viewing, and the newspapers published the official interpretation of the allegory, listed the "properties" of the monument. “In order to know the properties of the statue now being made by Mr. Falconet, it is necessary to know that Emperor Peter the Great is depicted striving at a fast run up a steep mountain that forms the base, and stretching out his right hand to his people. I sow a stone mountain, which has no other decoration, as soon as its natural appearance, marks the difficulties suffered by Peter I; by the runner's gallop - the rapid flow of his affairs. The domestic hand does not require explanation. "

The Bronze Horseman - the image-symbol - is the ideological center of the poem. All the events of the Petersburg story are connected with him, the life of Eugene leads him irresistibly to the monument, the theme of the city naturally closes in on the monument to the one whose “fateful will” the city was founded. Finally, the flood that broke out in the capital threatened the monument as well; - “the flood was playing” on the square where the bronze horseman towered, and “the waves of ravenous crowds, revolting viciously around him”. The "spiteful rebellion" of the "predatory waves" against the bronze horseman highlighted the main metamorphosis of the image of Peter. The living personality of Peter in the Entry turned into a monument in the St. Petersburg story, into an idol. The living is contrasted with the dead, acting in its own behind the bronze imperial grandeur.

This is just a statement of duality. The question is - has St. Petersburg become a city of captivity for nothing? - is not put, yes, and was not yet realized by Pushkin. In The Bronze Horseman, both the question is posed and the answer is given: the spirit of bondage is characteristic of the city as a citadel of autocracy. This answer, as a result of artistic research, is most fully given in the symbolic image of the monument.

Radishchev was the first to introduce into literature the huge theme of the Bronze Horseman: he was present at the unveiling of the monument on August 7, 1782, and in a "Letter to a friend who lives in Tobolsk, but the duty of his title" gave a description of the "powerful horseman", and most importantly, he did not limit himself to guessing the "thoughts of the sculptor "And the meaning of his allegory (which means" the steepness of the mountain ", the snake" lying on the way ", the head," crowned with laurels "), wisely interpreted the activities of Peter I.

The idea of ​​the dual nature of St. Petersburg has long tormented and worried Pushkin. It also broke through in a small lyric poem in 1828:

After the Introduction, the St. Petersburg tale begins, the plot of which is the life and death of a resident of the capital, a little official Eugene. And the appearance of the city immediately changes - the image-symbol acquires an even greater scale, its content is enriched and sharpened - it appears in its new face.

A new image-symbol appears - a monument, a statue, an idol on a bronze horse. It also turns out to be merged with the new face of the city - the stronghold of autocracy, highlighting the other face of Peter - the emperor. In the two faces of the city, acting as a symbolic image, the contradictoriness of the figure of Peter, a wise man-activist and an autocratic emperor, is manifested. Created by the people turned against him - the capital of the empire embodies the power of the autocrats, their inhuman policies. The image-symbol of the city acquired an acutely political character when the symbol of the city-capital intersected and interacted with the image-symbol of the monument, the bronze horseman.

• The city is lush, the city is poor,
• Boredom, cold and granite.
• Spirit of bondage, slender look,

What is this new face of the city? Petersburg appears as a stronghold of Russian autocracy, as a stronghold of autocracy, it is fundamentally and consistently hostile to man. The capital of Russia, created by the people, turned into a hostile force both for themselves and for an individual V person. That is why gloomy, dark colors appear, rivers that disturb the imagination ("November breathed autumn cold over darkened Petrograd"), the Neva became formidable, foreshadowing misfortune ("Splashing with a noisy wave At the edges of its slender fence, the Neva rushed about like a patient In her bed restless "), the streets were homeless and anxious (" It was already late and dark; the rain was angrily beating through the window, And the wind blew, howling sadly ").

• The vault of heaven is pale green,

Radishchev answered the question why any monarch, including an enlightened one, cannot express the interests of the people: “And I will say that Peter could have been more glorious, ascending himself and exalting his fatherland, asserting private liberty; but if we have examples that kings left their dignity in order to live in peace, which did not come from generosity, but from the satiety of their dignity, then there is no example until the end of the world; his power, sitting on the throne "