What can be cooked from squid: quick and tasty

Today we will raise a very important topic - the body's water balance, problems with it and how to avoid these problems.

general information
The human body, depending on age, consists of 90-50% water. Of them:

• Blood - 92% water


• muscles - 75% water,


• bones - 22% water,


• gastric juice - 99% water,


• adipose tissue - 20% water,


• the brain is 85% water.

In biology, electrolytes are aqueous solutions containing various ions (cations - sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium; anions - chlorine, bicarbonate, phosphates, sulfate). Electrolytes are necessary for the body, they are responsible for the osmolarity of fluids in the body, have immunotropic activity, serve as a "store of energy", participate in blood coagulation, form a bioelectric potential, catalyze metabolism, determine the activity of hydrogen ions (pH) of body fluids affect bone health.

Daily Water Intake and Electrolyte Recovery
Given the importance of water in the body, it is imperative to monitor your own water balance (as well as acid-base balance), especially with increased physical activity. The minimum daily norm of water for an adult is 1.5 liters, while the water consumption, which gives an increased load on the kidneys and the cardiovascular system, must be calculated individually (for increased physical activity, the daily norm is calculated at the rate of 40 ml / 1 kg of body weight; load the kidneys and heart).

Acid-base balance (ACB) is the acid-base ratio in the body. It is an integral part of homeostasis, that is, it is directly related to the body's ability to maintain life. Changes in BSP affect the quality of chemical reactions in the body, which can be extremely hazardous to health.

It is very important to maintain (maintain) the acid-base balance (ACB) in the body. To date, there are a lot of tablets and solutions for maintaining KShB. One of the most available funds is "Regidron", which is used in medicine to restore BSP in vomiting and diarrhea. Dissolving 1 sachet in 1 liter of water, you need to drink about 10 ml / 1 kg of body weight to restore the BAL, or 1 sachet / 24 hours to maintain the BAL.

Please note that in case of severe dehydration (10% or more), drugs such as "Regidron" are ineffective, rehydration (restoration of the amount of water in the body) must be carried out by intravenous means with careful monitoring of BSP (ie. in hospital).

For high physical exertion, the system used in sports is effective: 500 ml before exercise, one or two small sips every 15-20 minutes during exercise, 500 ml after exercise (solutions / isotonics can be used). This kind of system works very well with.
It is very important to remember that the body reacts painfully to changes in water and acid-base balance. Even small changes have a serious impact on muscle tone and, ultimately, on physical fitness in general.

Useful facts and tips

• You cannot treat water according to the principle “I don’t want to drink now,” “I will tolerate it until the halt,” etc. It is necessary to strictly adhere to the chosen scheme for maintaining the water balance;


• caffeine interferes with the restoration of water balance in the body;


• during bouts of hunger, taking a portion of water will change the mood “I would eat a horse” to “I would like to have a snack now”;


• taking chilled water leads to a slowdown in metabolic processes, so it is worth drinking water, conventionally "room" temperature;


• "Ordinary" water is not able to restore the CAP, as it causes a rapid drop in the osmotic pressure of blood plasma and dulls the feeling of thirst before the fluid reserves are fully restored. Therefore, it is advisable to use special solutions / isotonics or tablets;


• all kinds of "tricks" such as a pebble (or even a bullet) under the tongue are unacceptable, it is impossible to fight the feeling of thirst;


• it is unacceptable to use fruits (oranges and even more so lemons) or large amounts of tea instead of water (many brew green tea) to maintain water balance, you can greatly harm your stomach in the case of fruits (due to the effects of citric acid on the stomach) or aggravate water loss by the effects of caffeine (caffeine has diuretic properties, and also "spurs" electrolyte consumption).

* More detailed information on consumption rates can be found in the paragraph “ daily rate water consumption and electrolyte recovery ”.

Dehydration (dehydration), its symptoms and first aid for dehydration
Dehydration (dehydration) is a pathological condition of the body caused by a decrease in water content in it, accompanied by metabolic disorders. Dehydration can be caused by a number of diseases associated with significant water loss (sweating, vomiting, urine output, diarrhea), or insufficient water intake.
Dehydration symptoms include intense thirst, dry mouth / sticky saliva, little urine, dark yellow urine, poor health, weakness, loss of concentration, lethargy. With severe dehydration - hallucinations, acute vascular insufficiency (heatstroke). Dehydration 10-20% is life-threatening.
First aid for dehydration

1. The victim must be urgently removed from the open sun into the shade.


2. It is necessary to normalize the body temperature (unfasten clothes on the victim, cool with compresses, etc.).


3. Give water to drink (in small sips) or special solution / isotonic. Water with salt tablets or salt sprinkled on the tongue can work.


4. Observe the victim to determine the severity of the dehydration. If necessary, take to a doctor (for inpatient treatment).

Water in the human body plays a huge role as it is contained in our cells. In addition, there are many more functions that it performs. What these functions are, more on that later.

Liquid is an integral part environment... In terms of its importance, it ranks second after air. The main evidence of the importance of the fluid is its presence in the human body (approximately ninety percent). Fluid exchange in the human body can change over time.

1. During pregnancy, the fetus contains approximately twelve percent of the fluid.
2. In a newborn baby, this percentage increases significantly - up to eighty percent.
3. In adults, the volume of fluid is about seventy percent.

Such indicators are relevant only when no disturbances occur in a living organism.

Water in the human body

The role of water in the human body is colossal. Since liquid is a part of all tissues of living organisms, however, its amount there is different. Research by scientists has shown that today it is necessary to use water, which contains a balanced amount of minerals. This is explained by the main functions that water performs in the human body.

Many do not know what is the role of water in the human body. In order to answer this question, it is necessary to understand what functions water performs in the human body.

Functions of water in the human body:

• removal of toxins from the body;
• control over lubrication of human joints;
• control over fluid and stability of body temperature;
• moisturizing the mucous membranes and eyeball.

Liquid is also required to support metabolism and assimilation of necessary elements by cells. Digestion of food begins only if the food dissolves and enters the bloodstream through the intestinal wall. Many metabolic processes occur at the expense of fluid. However, if any disturbances occur in a living organism and the water balance begins to shift in one direction or another, free radicals begin to form, which are the main cause of decrepit skin, wrinkles are formed.

In addition to all of the above, I would like to note that water helps to prevent most diseases, especially cancer. According to experts, the more water a person uses, the more the body removes it. Together with it, pathogens that are the cause of diseases, as well as carcinogens that contribute to the development of cancer, go away.

The balance of water in the human body

The body's water balance is constantly monitored. Its essence lies in the balanced ingress of fluids into organisms with periodic release. The daily requirement of people for fluids is about forty grams per kilogram of body weight. So, people with a normal body weight should consume about three liters of fluid throughout the day.

If you do not consume enough water, disturbances occur, in which the electrolyte balance shifts in the negative direction. Wherein:

• metabolism slows down;
• the blood becomes viscous;
• organs are not saturated with oxygen in the required amount;
• the temperature gets higher;
• working capacity is sharply reduced.

When a person consumes too much fluid, its exchange gets a positive value. As a result, the blood thinns, but the cardiovascular system is under stress. In addition, gastric juice liquefies, and the work of the digestive system is subject to disruptions. The load on the renal system increases, and sweat begins to be released intensively. Together with it, many necessary elements are excreted from the human body. As a result, the electrolyte balance is disturbed, and the body is weakened.

If you drink a lot of fluids with increased stress on the body, a cramp may occur, and the muscles will quickly get tired. Maybe many people noticed that people who go in for sports do not drink liquid before long races, but rinse their mouth with it. Many people use this method during periods of increased stress or long races.

Violations of the body's water balance

Control over the water balance of the body is carried out constantly, but if violations occur, the person will immediately know about it. For example, if any irregularities occur, the person's urine becomes darker. The skin begins to dry out, subject to constant irritation.

Pores are often clogged in people whose skin is most susceptible to these disorders. If the water balance of the human body is disturbed from reduced water consumption, he develops edema, since the body no longer removes it. Often there is:

• nausea;
• vomit;
• joint pain;
• infections in the bladder;
• migraines are possible.

Water imbalance also leads to a decrease in mental activity. At the same time, a person becomes tired, absent-minded, anxious. Depression is not uncommon. In addition, immunity decreases, which is the main cause of colds.

How to prevent water imbalance

Water imbalance can be prevented if:

• engage in moderate exercise;
• follow a diet;
• drink enough fluids daily.

In this case, you must drink at least one and a half liters of water (and not more than three liters). Fat people you should drink one more glass of water with ten kilograms of excess weight. It is recommended to increase the rate of fluid intake in the heat, and in case of visiting the bathhouse in the cold season. More fluid is needed for those who are actively involved in sports.

When for some time it is not possible to consume the required amount of liquid, do not worry. Besides drinking, one gets water from fruits, vegetables and soups. Contains water bread, meat, cereals. By the way, it forms water and the human body. So, short-term thirst will not harm your health. It is important the rest of the time to periodically drink liquid.

Be that as it may, we must remember that the liquid from the tap must be boiled. It is advisable not to drink a lot of it, because its composition is harmful to humans, since it does not include various useful microelements. But it consists of a considerable number of cleansing substances. You can cook with such a liquid, however, it is recommended to purchase a liquid from a natural source for drinking.

Mineralized water is useful in case of disturbed processes in the field of physiology. However, it often upsets the existing balance. So you don't need to consume a lot of mineral water. For those who want to use it as remedy, it is worth consulting with doctors on this issue.

The effect of drinking fluids can be obtained if you drink often, but not much. In addition, it is useful to drink a glass of water on an empty stomach. This will help kick-start the digestion process, which helps in better absorption of food. If a person has a feeling of hunger, just drink a glass of water and everything will pass.

When it's time for lunch, water can help prevent overeating. It is recommended to drink a quarter of an hour before meals and an hour after meals. So the food will begin to digest faster and will not be deposited in fat.

As you can see, the role of water in the human body is enormous, and its lack is dangerous for us. Therefore, you need to carefully monitor yourself and try to notice all the signals that our body gives us.

(8 estimates, average: 5,00 out of 5)

Water balance is a very interesting thing. In addition to regulating water exchange and providing clean water to all body systems, this process has a significant effect on weight management.

About water exchange in the human body

Have you heard the phrase "flooded", what is really going on? Are you surprised that by the end of the day you gained +2 kg? We went on a diet for a week and lost 3 kg, should this be considered a great success, and should we expect the same rate of weight loss in the future? I am sure these questions are of great interest. Let's figure it out.

The effect of water balance on our body

In short, the water balance is the ratio of water that entered the human body to the water that he got rid of. This balance can be either positive or negative.

Our body needs water for functions:

• brain work
• nervous system
• blood flow
• digestion
• respiration and many other systems.

We ourselves are 60-80% (depending on age) water. Maintaining the water balance is close to the normal position (to zero), i.e. you need to focus on the comfort of the body. You don't need to talk too much, if you are thirsty - drink, you don't feel like drinking - you shouldn't pour liters of H2O into yourself.

Few facts about water in the body

In principle, this could be the end of the story, tk. there is very little other information on water exchange in Runet. But we will go further. The fact is that the water balance in the human body is the very elusive Joe, which has a hidden but critical effect on body weight.

In the human body, in the process of evolution, a complex mechanism has been developed that ensures normal water balance - the amount of consumed water should be equal to its consumption. Human water balance is calculated by daily consumption water, as well as its excretion from the body. A person receives an average of 2.5 liters of water per day: 1.2 liters - due to the liquid he drinks, 1 liter - together with foodstuffs that contain water, 0.3 liters of water is formed in the body itself in the process of metabolism - this is the so-called endogenous water. The same amount of fluid should be excreted from the body in 24 hours.

An adult needs 2.5-3 liters of water per day - in the composition of food and drinking, because approximately this amount of water is lost to the external environment. If the temperature of the external environment is equal to the temperature of the human body, then an adult evaporates 4.5 liters of water daily.

The need for water varies significantly depending on the ambient temperature, on the nature of the diet, and in particular on the salt content of the food. For example, when working in hot climates, the total daily need for water in food and drink increases to 10 liters.

In addition, water is formed in the body itself during oxidation nutrients... It is found in large quantities in some food products, for example, in vegetables, berries, fruits. With complete oxidation, water is formed per 100 g of the substance: during the oxidation of protein - 41 cm3, starch - 55 cm3, fat - 107 cm3.

For every 420 J released during the decomposition of organic substances, 12 cm3 of water is formed, and about 300 cm3 per day. On average, an adult's body receives 1200 cm3 of drinking water per day, and 1000 cm3 of food contained in food. A day from the body of an adult is excreted in the urine of about 1.5 liters, with feces - 100-200 cm3, through the skin - 500 cm3 and through the lungs - 350-400 cm3. This keeps the water balance.

With a lack of water in the body, a feeling of thirst appears, which is expressed by a peculiar sensation of dryness in the mouth and pharynx. The center that regulates water exchange is localized in the brain stem. The main cause of thirst is a violation of the optimal ratio between water, salts and organic substances in the blood, as a result of which the osmotic pressure of the body fluid rises.

Drinking regimen - rational order of water consumption. A correctly established drinking regime ensures a normal water-salt balance and creates favorable conditions for the vital activity of the body. Indiscriminate, excessive drinking impairs digestion, creates an additional load on the cardiovascular system and kidneys, leads to an increase in the excretion of a number of substances valuable for the body through the kidneys and sweat glands (for example, table salt). Even a temporary load of water disrupts the working conditions of the muscles, leads to rapid fatigue, and sometimes causes convulsions. Insufficient water intake also disrupts the normal functioning of the body: body weight decreases, blood viscosity increases, body temperature rises, pulse and respiration become more frequent, thirst and a feeling of nausea appear, and working capacity decreases.

The minimum amount of water required to maintain the water-salt balance during the day (drinking rate) depends on the climatic conditions, as well as the nature and severity of the work performed. For example, for temperate latitudes, the amount of water introduced with drinking and food with minimal physical activity is 2.5 liters per day, with physical work of moderate severity up to 4 liters, in the climate of Central Asia with a minimum physical activity of 3.5 liters, with physical work of medium severity up to 5 liters, with heavy work on outdoors up to 6.5 liters.

It is especially important to observe the correct drinking regime in conditions that cause large losses of fluid in the body, which often occurs in hot climates, when working in hot workshops, during prolonged and significant physical exertion (for example, during training and in competitions, mountain climbing). Residents of areas with hot climates are advised to completely quench their thirst only after satiety and strictly limit fluid intake in between meals. To quench thirst, use tea that increases salivation and eliminates dry mouth, add fruit and vegetable juices or extracts to the water. In hot shops they drink carbonated water or dried fruit decoctions. The drinking regimen of athletes provides for thirst quenching after exercise. When mountain climbing, it is recommended to quench your thirst only during long breaks. With significant weight loss associated with large physical activity(after workouts, sports events, steam baths), it is recommended to drink in fractional portions.

The body's water balance is maintained by an adequate supply of water in accordance with its losses. The body receives water from drinking, food and as a result of metabolic processes, and loses it in urine, feces, through the lungs and skin. The amount of consumed and released water averages 2.5 liters per day. In the form of a drink, 1300 ml should normally enter the body, with food - 1000 ml, in the process of metabolism, 200 ml of water is formed. The minimum inflow of water to ensure water-electrolyte balance is 1500 ml. Daily urine output is 1400 ml, 1000 ml of water is excreted through the skin and lungs, with 100 ml of feces.

The daily need for water depends on many factors: body weight, gender, age, ambient temperature, etc. In this regard, the daily requirement of the human body for water normally varies within wide limits - from 1 to 3 liters or more. With a production of 1000 kcal, approximately 100 ml of water is formed. Since the diet of an adult is on average 1500-2200 kcal, the amount of endogenous water formed is on average 150-220 ml. The amount of water consumed approximately corresponds to diuresis, and the amount of water supplied with food is approximately equal to the losses during respiration and through the skin.

Normal indices of imperceptible water loss during breathing and from the skin surface with sweat in adults are about 15 ml / kg of body weight per day. Their volume depends on the intensity of metabolic processes, the amount of endogenous water formed and external factors... The average daily water loss through the lungs is 0.4-0.5 liters, through the skin - 0.5-0.7 liters. Thus, the volume of imperceptible, or imperceptible, water loss in an adult with a body weight of 70 kg under normal conditions is approximately 1 l / day. Physiological fluctuations in water loss are quite significant. With an increase in body temperature, the amount of endogenous water increases and the loss of water through the skin and during respiration increases. In newborns, water losses are more significant than in adults, and reach 50 ml / kg per day. The daily exchange of extracellular fluid in newborns is 50%, and in an adult - only 15%.

With a decrease in the flow of water, oliguria occurs, the concentration of urine increases, and the accumulation of nitrogenous toxins occurs. The optimal daily urine output in humans is 1400-1600 ml. The minimum amount of water that ensures water-electrolyte balance is 1.5 liters.

Water with substances dissolved in it is a functional unity both in biological and physicochemical terms, is the most important reaction medium and plays the role of the main plastic element of the body. The total amount of water depends on the total amount of cations, especially sodium and potassium, which regulate the content of anions and bound water. The excretory function of the kidneys depends on the water content. With dehydration as a result of the action of antidiuretic hormone (ADH), oliguria occurs. ADH usually does not affect the excretion of potassium and sodium cations.

The total water content in the body. In newborns, the total amount of water is 80% of the body weight. With age, the content of water in tissues decreases: in the body of a healthy man, it contains on average about 60%, and in women about 50% of body weight. With obesity, the water content decreases in men to 50%, and in women to 42%. With reduced nutrition, the water content in the tissues is increased (up to 70% in men and up to 60% in women). Adipose tissue contains approximately 30% water, fat-free mass - 72-73%. This, apparently, can explain the fact that obese people tolerate water loss much more heavily than people with normal or low nutrition.

Aquatic sections of the body

Approximately 2/3 of the water is inside the cells (intracellular water space), 1/3 - outside the cells (extracellular water space) (Table 19.1).

Table 19.1.

Sectoral distribution of water in the human body

Note. VnuKZh = ObshZh - OutsKzh; InZH = ExtraQZH - RV.

Extracellular water space... The extracellular space is the fluid that surrounds cells, the volume and composition of which is maintained by regulatory mechanisms. The main cation of the extracellular fluid is sodium, the main anion is chlorine. Sodium and chlorine play a major role in maintaining the osmotic pressure and fluid volume of this space. Through the extracellular space, oxygen, nutrients and ions are transported to cells and toxins are delivered to the excretory organs. The extracellular environment is inhomogeneous (blood and lymph vessels, interstitial fluid, fluid in dense connective tissues) and has zones of different metabolic rates. In this regard, the definition of the extracellular volume is to a certain extent arbitrary, although it is of great practical importance. It is generally accepted that the extracellular fluid accounts for approximately 20-22% of body weight. In fact, the total volume of extracellular fluid exceeds this value.

The extracellular space includes the following water sectors.

Intravascular water sector- plasma, which has a constant cationic-anionic composition and contains proteins that retain fluid in the vascular bed. The plasma volume in an adult is 4-5% of body weight.

Interstitial sector(interstitial fluid) is an environment in which cells are located and actively function and which is a kind of buffer between the intravascular and cellular sectors.

The interstitial fluid differs from plasma in a significantly lower protein content. Vascular membranes are easily permeable to electrolytes and less permeable to plasma proteins (Donnan effect). Nevertheless, there is a constant exchange between plasma proteins and interstitial fluid. In two sectors - intravascular and interstitial - fluid isotonic, the same is observed in the cell sector. Through the interstitial sector, the transit of ions, oxygen, nutrients into the cell and the reverse movement of toxins into the vessels, through which they are delivered to the excretory organs, take place.

The interstitial sector is a significant "reservoir" containing 1/4 of all body fluid (15% of body weight). This "capacity" as a reservoir of water can significantly increase (with overhydration) or decrease (with dehydration). Due to the fluid in the interstitial sector, the volume of plasma is compensated for in acute blood and plasma loss. Transfusion of a significant amount of crystalloid solutions is not accompanied by a significant increase in BCC due to their penetration through the vascular membranes into the interstitial fluid.

Transcellular sector(intercellular fluid) is a fluid that resides in body cavities, including the digestive tract. The total amount of transcellular fluid, according to different authors, is 1–2.3% of body weight, although the intensity of excretion and reabsorption of fluid from the gastrointestinal tract is very high - 8–10 L / day. A significant increase in the transcellular sector occurs with impaired reabsorption and deposition of fluid in gastrointestinal tract(peritonitis, intestinal obstruction).

Intracellular water space... Water in cells surrounds intracellular structures (nucleus and organelles), ensures their vital activity and is actually a constituent part of the protoplasm of cells. In contrast to the extracellular fluid in the intracellular more high level protein and potassium and a small amount of sodium. The main cellular cation is potassium, the main anions are phosphate and proteins. Potassium accounts for about 2/3 of the active cellular cations, about 1/3 is the share of magnesium. The concentration of potassium in muscle cells is 160 mmol / l, in erythrocytes - 87 mmol / l, in plasma only 4.5 mmol / l. Potassium in cells is either in a free state, or is bound with a chlorine ion or two phosphate buffer ions (KsHPO 4 and KH3PO 4). Chlorine ion in healthy cells is absent or is contained in very small amounts. The chlorine content in cells increases only in pathological conditions. The concentration of potassium in red blood cells does not fully reflect its balance in the cellular space, since changes in the content of potassium in red blood cells occur more slowly than in other cells.

Thus, the concentration of potassium and sodium in the cellular fluid is significantly different from the concentration of these ions in the extracellular water space. This difference is due to the functioning of the sodium-potassium pump located in the cell membrane. Due to the difference in concentration, a bioelectric potential is formed, which is necessary for the excitability of neuromuscular structures. Due to repolarization of the cell membrane, K + and Na + ions freely penetrate into the cell, but Na + is immediately expelled from the cell. The sodium-potassium pump, as it were, constantly pumps sodium from the cells into the interstitium, and potassium, on the contrary, into the cells. For the implementation of this process, energy is needed, which is formed by hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) during the assimilation of fats, carbohydrates and vitamins, in the absence of energy material, tissue proteins are consumed.

Changes in the concentration of potassium and magnesium in the blood serum do not fully correspond to changes in the concentration of these ions in the cell fluid. A decrease in the concentration of potassium in plasma with acidemia means a deficiency of potassium not only in plasma, but also in cells. The normal level of potassium in plasma does not always correspond to its normal content in cells.

Osmolarity and colloidal osmotic pressure

Osmotic pressure is the binding capacity of aqueous solutions, depending on the amount of particles dissolved, but not on the nature of the solute or solvent. Osmotic pressure is created when the solution is separated from the pure solvent by a membrane that is freely passable for the solvent, but impermeable to solutes. The amount of substances in a solution is usually denoted in millimoles per liter (mmol / l).

Blood plasma is a complex solution containing ions (Na + K +, Cl +, HCO 3 - and others), non-electrolyte molecules (urea, glucose, etc.) and proteins. The osmotic pressure of the plasma is equal to the sum of the osmotic pressures of the ingredients it contains (Table 19.2).

The data given in table. 19.2, calculated according to the Van't Hoff equation (Belavin Yu.I.). The equation is valid for dilute solutions. In a real solution, the values ​​of osmotic pressure can be somewhat lower due to intermolecular and interionic effects. This table does not include fats and cholesterol.

The total plasma concentration is 285-295 mmol / l. Plasma osmotic pressure is created predominantly by dissociated electrolytes having a relatively high molecular concentration and low molecular weight. Osmotic concentration is denoted by the term "osmolarity" - the number of millimoles dissolved in 1 liter of water (mmol / l), or by the term "osmolality" (mmol / kg). Approximately 50% of the osmotic pressure of plasma is due to Na + and Cl +. Monovalent ions form in solution the number of osmoles equal to the number of equivalents. Divalent ions form two equivalents, but one osmol each; 100 mg% glucose creates 5.5 mmol / L, 100 mg% urea - 17.3 mmol / L, plasma proteins - 1.5-2 mmol / L.

Table 19.2.

Concentration of plasma components and the osmotic pressure generated by them

The osmotic pressure created by high molecular weight colloidal substances is called colloidal osmotic pressure (COP). In plasma, these substances are albumins, globulins and fibrinogen. Normally, the CODE is 25 mm Hg. (3.4 kPa) and can be determined by calculation or direct measurement with an oncometer (Table 19.3).

CODE depends on the molecular weight of the solute and its concentration. Albumin, the concentration of which in plasma is 42 g / l (4.2 g%), have a pier. m. 70,000, their share in the plasma CODE is up to 80%. Globulins with a higher mol. m., than albumin, create up to 16-18% of the total plasma CODE. Only 2% of plasma CODE is created by proteins of the blood coagulation system. CODE depends on plasma protein levels, mainly albumin levels, and is associated with volemia, osmolarity and Na concentration + in plasma.

COD plays an important role in maintaining the volume of water sectors and tissue turgor, as well as in the processes of transcapillary metabolism. There is a direct relationship between plasma volume and COP value. The ratio of COP and hydrostatic pressure determines the processes of filtration and reabsorption. A decrease in the concentration of plasma proteins, especially albumin, is accompanied by a decrease in blood volume and the development of edema. Lipoid-soluble substances have no osmotic activity.

An increase in plasma osmolarity leads to an increase in the production of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and produces a feeling of thirst. Under the influence of ADH, the state of the hyaluronic complexes of the interstitial sector changes, the resorption of water in the distal tubules of the kidney increases, and urination decreases. The formation of ADH naturally increases with a decrease in fluid volumes in the interstitial and intravascular sections. With an increase in blood volume, the formation of ADH decreases.

Table 19.3.

Ionic and molar composition of body fluids

Note. In each water section, a constant ionic composition, constant values ​​of osmotic pressure and pH are maintained. The distribution of water between sections depends on the total amount of substances dissolved in it. The water moves in the direction of a higher osmotic gradient. The electroneutrality of the medium is ensured by the equality of the total amounts of cations and anions.

The functioning of this mechanism is due to the volume receptors in the arterial system, atria and interstitial tissue. With hypovolemia, the secretion of aldosterone increases, which increases sodium reabsorption.

Extracellular and intracellular fluid, electrolyte concentration and pH are inextricably linked with each other. Any violations of the constancy of the internal environment of the body are accompanied by changes in the water sectors. Large fluctuations of the liquid in the sectors are due to complex biological processes that obey physicochemical laws. In this case, the laws of electroneutrality and iso-osmolarity are of the greatest importance.

Electric neutrality law

lies in the fact that the sum of positive charges in all bodies of water is equal to the sum of negative charges. Constantly occurring changes in the concentration of electrolytes in aqueous media are accompanied by a change in electrical potentials with subsequent recovery. Thus, during dynamic equilibrium, stable concentrations of cations and anions are formed.

A graphic representation of this law can be presented in the form of a Gamble diagram. The content of cations in any water sector is equal to the content of anions. The sum of the positive charges created by the cations is equal to the sum of the negative charges created by the anions. The most rapid changes are subject to the bicarbonate ion and residual anions. The clarity of electrolyte changes allows using the diagram in the process of intensive treatment of various categories of patients. Some components of the diagram can be determined by calculations (Figure 19.1).

The extracellular fluid is isotonic to the intracellular fluid, despite the fact that there are more charged particles inside the cells. This is because some of the ions inside the cell are bound to proteins. Many ions are polyvalent, which increases the number of charges rather than osmotically active particles.

The law of isoosmolarity.

The osmolarity in the sectors between which water movement occurs should be the same, despite the difference in ionic composition.

Thus, equilibrium is achieved if the osmolarity BnuQZh = osmolarity InZh = osmolarity RV. If in one of the spaces the osmolarity increases, i.e. the amount of dissolved particles will increase, then water will pass into this space from another space with a lower osmolarity. As a result, a new value of osmolarity is established, new volumes of liquid and electrolyte concentrations are formed.

Renal regulation of water and electrolyte balance

The kidneys are the main organ that regulates the amount of water and electrolytes in the body. Urine comes from extracellular fluid. Since the latter is composed of water and sodium, it can be said that water and sodium are needed to form urine. The more of them in the extracellular fluid, the more diuresis. With a lack of water and electrolytes, oliguria and anuria are a physiological reaction associated with the stimulation of ADH and aldosterone. In this case, the restoration of water-electrolyte losses will lead to the restoration of diuresis.

Healthy adult kidneys can function well with limited or excess fluid and electrolyte intake. During a day, from 300 to 1500 washings are excreted with urine, on average about 600 washings, residual metabolic products in the form of salts and other solutes. Concentration ability of the kidneys in newborns and infants is about 2 times lower than in adults. The kidneys of adults can create a concentration of up to 1400 mOsm / L. To excrete 1 of my healthy adult kidney, at least 0.8 ml of water is required, or 480 ml for 600 of my. To maintain osmotic regulation, it is necessary to receive at least 1500 ml of water per day, of which 1000 ml is spent on perspiration losses. Fluid restriction in this case would lead to impaired renal compensation.

At the same time, the kidneys can excrete 600 mye at a much higher dilution. At the same time, it takes up to 5-10 ml of water to isolate 1 mine, and these figures are not an indicator of impaired renal function. To excrete 600 mine, a significant amount of water (4-7 liters) will be required, which will not damage healthy kidneys. Thus, the consumption of 1.5 liters of water is the minimum, and 7 liters is the maximum, while the average values ​​are optimal. When salt is added to water, diuresis increases, while healthy kidneys can excrete up to 15 liters of urine per day.

The main role of ions

The importance of electrically charged particles in the body is enormous: electrolytes play a leading role in osmotic homeostasis, create bioelectric membrane potentials, participate in metabolism, oxygen utilization, transfer and conservation of energy, the activity of organs and cells. Various cations and anions fulfill their biological function.

Sodium- the most important cation of the extracellular space. Sodium plays a major role in maintaining the osmotic pressure of the extracellular fluid. Even a small sodium deficiency cannot be compensated for by any other cations; in this case, the osmosis and volume of the extracellular fluid will immediately change. Thus, sodium regulates the volume of fluid in the extracellular space. There was a linear relationship between plasma deficiency and sodium deficiency. An increase in the sodium concentration in the extracellular fluid leads to the release of water from the cells and, conversely, a decrease in the osmosis of the extracellular fluid will facilitate the movement of water into the cells. Sodium is involved in the creation of the bioelectric membrane potential.

Potassium is the main cation of the intracellular space. Most of these cations are found inside cells mainly in the form of fragile compounds with proteins, creatinine and phosphorus, partially in an ionized state. In the interstitial sector and plasma, potassium is mainly contained in an ionized form. Potassium plays an important role in protein metabolism (participation in protein synthesis and breakdown), utilization of glycogen by cells, phosphorylation and neuromuscular excitation processes. Potassium is released by phosphorylation of adenylic acid and glycolytic intermediates. With dephosphorylation, potassium is retained inside the cells. As a consequence, glycogenolysis is associated with hyperkalemia, which may result from the action of adrenaline. Hypoglycemia caused by an excess of insulin in the blood, on the contrary, is accompanied by hypokalemia. The release of potassium from cells occurs during shock, oxygen starvation, protein catabolism, cellular dehydration and other states of stress. The return of potassium to cells is observed with improved utilization of carbohydrates, protein synthesis, and restoration of water balance. The intensity of cellular metabolism can be judged by the ratio of the potassium content in the extracellular and intracellular spaces, which is normally 1/30. Potassium enters the cell with glucose and phosphorus.

Potassium plays an important role in the activity of the cardiovascular system, digestive tract and kidneys, and the polarization of the cell membrane. Potassium concentration increases with acidosis and decreases with alkalosis.

Calcium- a cation of the extracellular space. Only calcium ions have biological activity. They affect the excitability of the neuromuscular system, membrane permeability, in particular vascular endothelium, blood coagulation. PH has a definite effect on the ratio between ionized and non-ionized calcium compounds in the blood. With alkalosis, the concentration of calcium ions in the plasma decreases markedly, and with acidosis it increases, which plays a large role in the occurrence of tetany in alkalosis. Calcium compounds with proteins are not dialyzed and do not pass into the ultrafiltrate. In human plasma, calcium is bound to proteins, organic acids and is in an ionized state.

Magnesium, like potassium, is the main cellular cation. Its concentration in cells is much higher than in plasma and interstitial fluid. In plasma, it is bound to proteins, as well as other compounds, and is in an ionized state. Magnesium plays an important role in enzymatic processes: oxygen utilization, glycolysis, energy release. Magnesium reduces the excitability of the neuromuscular system, reduces the contractility of the myocardium and smooth muscles, and has a depressive effect on the central nervous system.

Chlorine- the main anion of the extracellular space, participates in the processes of polarization of cell membranes, is in equivalent proportions with sodium. Excess chlorine leads to acidosis.

Bicarbonate... Unlike sodium, potassium and chlorine ions, which are called fixed ions, the hydrocaobonate ion is subject to significant changes. A decrease in the concentration of bicarbonate leads to metabolic acidosis, an increase to alkalosis. Bicarbonate is part of the most important buffer system of the extracellular space. Together with plasma proteins, it forms the amount of bicarbonate and protein buffer, which is normally 42 mmol / L.

Residual anions- phosphates, sulfates and anions of organic acids (lactate, pyruvate, acetoacetic and beta-hydroxybutyric acids, etc.) - are found in plasma in low concentrations.

Phosphate- the main anion of the intracellular space. The concentration of phosphate in cells is about 40 times higher than in plasma. Plasma phosphate is presented as monohydrogen phosphate and dihydrogen phosphate anions. It is associated with proteins, nucleic acids, participates in the metabolism of carbohydrates, energy processes, and has the properties of a buffer.

Sulfate- predominantly cellular anion. Its percentage in plasma is very low. Sulfate is formed by the breakdown of sulfur-containing amino acids. An increase in plasma sulfate concentration occurs with renal failure.

The concentration of lactic and pyruvic acids in plasma increases with anaerobic glycolysis, acetoacetic and beta-hydroxybutyric acids - in diabetes.

A significant part of ions is in a fixed state in bone and cartilage tissue, tendons and other tissues and does not take part in the exchange. Table 19.4 shows data on the content and distribution of electrolytes in the body of an adult with a body weight of 70 kg [according to V. Hartig, 1982].

Table 19.4.

The content of cations and anions in the human body

Proteins, or proteins, are high molecular weight complex organic substances built from amino acids and are the main constituent part of a living organism and the material basis of life. Proteins regulate many important processes, stimulate chemical reactions, bind toxins and poisons that have entered the blood, are carriers of oxygen, hormones, medicinal and other substances, participate in the processes of blood coagulation and muscle contraction, create colloidal osmotic pressure and have a buffer property. The content of proteins in cells is much higher than in plasma.

Proteins make up approximately 17% of body weight. The vascular sector contains approximately 120 g of albumin. In the interstitial fluid, the albumin content is insignificant - 0.4 g in 100 ml. The concentration of plasma proteins is normally 2 mmol / l (16-17 meq / l). Most of the amino acids are found in muscles.