What can be cooked from squid: fast and tasty

one of the Sino-Tibetan languages. The official language of the People's Republic of China (the number of speakers is over 1 billion people). It is also common in Indonesia, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Myanmar, Malaysia, Thailand, Singapore, and others (the number of speakers is about 50 million people; 1989, estimate). One of the 6 official and working languages ​​of the UN.

The Chinese language has 7 main dialect groups: Northern 北方話 (over 70% of speakers), Wu 吳, Xiang 湘, Gan 贛, Hakka 客家, Yue 粵, Min 閩. Dialects differ phonetically, lexically, partly grammatically, which makes it difficult or impossible for interdialect communication, but the basics of their grammatical structure and vocabulary are the same. The dialects are connected by regular sound correspondences. The modern Chinese language exists in two forms - written and oral; in grammatical and lexical terms, the national literary Chinese language relies on northern dialects. Its phonetic norm is Beijing pronunciation.

Consonants and vowels (data on the number of phonemes differ) are organized into a limited number of toned syllables of a fixed (constant) composition. There are 4 tones in Chinese, and tone is a mandatory characteristic of a syllable and can be lost only in an unstressed position (as a rule, affixes are unstressed and toneless). Taking into account tones in the national Chinese language - putonghua - 1324 different syllables, in abstraction from tone - 414 syllables (segmental sound segments). Syllable division is morphologically significant, that is, each syllable is the sound shell of a morpheme or a simple word. A separate phoneme as a carrier of meaning (a vowel, in dialects - some sonorants) is toned and is a special case of a syllable.

Morphemes and simple words tend to be monosyllabic. Some monosyllabic words from the ancient Chinese language are used only as a component of complex and derivative words. The two-syllable (two-morpheme) norm of the word dominates. In connection with the development of terminology, the number of more than two-syllable words is growing. Word formation is carried out due to word formation, affixation and conversion. Composition models are analogues of word combination models (in many cases it is impossible to distinguish a compound word from a phrase), shaping is represented mainly by verbal aspect suffixes. The plural form is inherent in nouns denoting persons and personal pronouns. One affix can refer to a number of significant words. Affixes are not numerous, in some cases optional, have an agglutinative character. Agglutination does not serve to express relationships between words, and the structure of Chinese remains isolating.

The syntax is characterized by a nominative structure, a grammatically significant word order, the definition is always in preposition. A sentence with a transitive verb as a predicate can take the form of an active (2 varieties) and a passive construction; possible permutations of words that do not change their syntactic role. The Chinese language has a developed system of complex sentences formed by allied and non-union composition and subordination.

Based on living dialects that existed in the 1st half of the 1st millennium BC. e., there was a literary ancient Chinese language - Wenyan 文言 (finally - by the 4th-3rd centuries BC), which already in the 1st millennium AD. e. parted with the language of oral communication and became incomprehensible to the ear. This written language, reflecting the norms of the ancient Chinese language, was used as a literary language until the 20th century, having undergone significant changes over the centuries (for example, it was replenished with terminology). From the beginning of the 1st millennium AD. e. a new written language is being formed that reflects colloquial speech - baihua 白話 (“simple”, “understandable language”, developed in the 10th-13th centuries). Northern Baihua (based on northern dialects) formed the basis of the common Chinese language - Putonghua 普通話 ("common language"; until 1911 it was called guanhua 官話, then, until 1949, Guoyu 國語). In the 1st half of the 20th century. putonghua established itself in written communication, displacing wenyan, and became the national literary language.

The Chinese language uses hieroglyphic writing (see Chinese writing). Ancient monuments(divinary inscriptions on bronze, stones, bones, turtle shells) apparently date back to the 2nd half of the 2nd millennium BC. e. The oldest literary monuments - "Shujing" 書經 ("Book of History") and "Shijing" 詩經 ("Book of Songs") - belong to the 1st half of the 1st millennium BC. e.

Ivanov A. I., Polivanov E. D., Grammar of the modern Chinese language, M., 1930; Dragunov A. A., Studies in the grammar of modern Chinese, part 1, M.-L., 1952; Wang Liao-i, Fundamentals of Chinese Grammar, trans. from Kit., M., 1954; Yakhontov S. E., The category of the verb in Chinese, L., 1957; his own, Ancient Chinese language, M., 1965; Solntsev V. M., Essays on the modern Chinese language, M., 1957; Lü Shu-hsiang, An Outline of Chinese Grammar, trans. from Chinese, vol. 1-2, M., 1961-65; Yuan Chia-hua, Dialects of the Chinese language, trans. from Kit., M., 1965; Korotkov N. N., The main features of the morphological structure of the Chinese language, M., 1968; Zograf I. T., Middle Chinese language, M., 1979; Kalgren, B., The Chinese Language, N. Y., 1949; Chao Yuen-ren, A grammar of spoken Chinese, 2 ed., Berk. - Los Ang., 1970; Wang W. S-Y., Lyovin A., CLIBOC: Chinese linguistics bibliography on computer, Camb., 1970. Big Chinese-Russian Dictionary, ed. I. M. Oshanina, vol. 1-4, M., 1983-84; Large Russian-Chinese Dictionary, Beijing, 1985; Great Explanatory Dictionary of the Chinese Language / 漢語大詞典, vol. 1-13, Shanghai, 1986-93 (in Chinese).

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O. R. Ochirov

modern Chinese terminology

The study of terminology has become one of the most relevant areas of modern linguistic research by both Chinese and Russian scientists. The article reveals their meaning and role in modern linguistics.

Key words: Chinese terminology, Russian terminology, linguistics, terms.

the contemporary Chinese terminology

Study of Chinese terminology must be conceptually connected with Chinese lexicology and lexicography. The article is dedicated to the role and place of Chinese terminology in linguistics.

Key words: Chinese terminology, Russian terminology, linguistics, terms.

Since the middle of the last century, there has been a need for a deeper linguistic theoretical understanding of the terminology of the modern Chinese language. Terminology issues have become one of the most relevant areas of modern linguistic research, both by Chinese and Russian scientists. This is due to the growing importance of terminology in the language and insufficient knowledge of the processes of formation, development and functioning of terms in modern Chinese. The terminological layer of vocabulary is becoming a more dynamic element of the Chinese language, which in turn requires a more detailed and analytical study of terms. The study of the patterns of formation of terms in the Chinese language, their structure and semantics has become one of the most important tasks of modern sinology.

The Chinese language is becoming more and more informative, new terms and terminological phrases are constantly appearing. The modern development of science and technology, the computerization of all areas of human activity, the active integration of China into the world economy system have caused a radical restructuring of the conceptual apparatus of many scientific disciplines and the emergence of new branches of knowledge, increased

the number of new concepts requiring new nominations.

The terminology of Modern Chinese originated from experience practical work over terminological systems and was formed on the basis of lexicography (Zheng Shupu, Feng Zhiwei, etc.). In Russian philological literature, the terminology of the modern Chinese language is considered mainly in the range of issues related to the problems of special languages ​​(I. D. Klenin, V. V. Ivanov, O. P. Frolova). By modern Chinese we mean a language that has developed since the second half of the 20th century. and to the present.

The subject of the study of the terminology of any language, including the Chinese we are considering, is the study of word formation and the use of special words, with the help of which the knowledge accumulated by mankind is indicated; identification of common features common to all terms; search for optimal ways to create new terms and their systems; improvement of already existing terminological systems; the search for universal facts common to the terminologies of different languages; generalization of the experience of individual Russian, Chinese and other foreign researchers and schools dealing with the problems of terminology.

The terminology of modern Chinese is concentrated mainly on special vocabulary and only then on denotation. The problems of synonymy and homonymy, due to the specifics of the Chinese language, are quite difficult, requiring a separate study. A feature of the terms of the Chinese language and special vocabulary is the specificity of the connection of its units with concepts and named objects. In particular, the problem of special vocabulary in the general theory of terminology is addressed by A. V. Superanskaya, N. V. Podolskaya, N. V. Vasilyeva. Chinese researcher Zheng Shupu, emphasizing the importance of the theory of the Russian terminological school in the development Chinese terminology, says that the theoretical works of Russian scientists A.V. Superanskaya, N.V. Podolskaya, N.V. Vasilyeva helped him decide on the formation of the terminological school that had developed at Heilongjiang University.

An important property of the terminological systems of any language is their consistency, which is created by the classification of concepts and implemented in a uniform construction of terms.

Philology, history, oriental studies

Terminology as a science has been formed quite recently. S. V. Grinev notes that this young science will play an unusually important role in the future development of mankind.

Neighborhood and common long border factor, rich experience international cooperation and friendship determines the study of the terminology of the Chinese language as having great scientific and practical significance.

It is quite natural that in the period of the formation of a young science theoretical basis of modern Chinese terminology are a conglomeration of concepts and provisions that are put forward by individual scientists and scientific schools. In modern Chinese terminology, three main terminological schools have formed that conduct scientific research in several different areas of terminology: Harbin, Beijing, Shanghai.

Zheng Shupu, Doctor of Philology, Professor, Director of the Institute of Terminology of Heilongjiang University, is actually the founder of the Harbin terminological school. Its main feature is that the representatives of this school in their research adhere to the direction of the Russian terminological school.

The Beijing School, represented by Doctor of Philology, Professor Feng Zhiwei, adheres to the direction of the Canadian terminological school.

The Shanghai School is represented by researchers from Shanghai Tongji University.

Joint terminological research, according to Professor Zheng Shupu, should be based on the theoretical provisions of the Russian terminological school, taking into account the extensive experience in the terminological lexicography of the Chinese terminological school. The great practical experience accumulated by Chinese researchers can be enriched by the theoretical developments of Russian scientists.

The researcher needs to systematize those theoretical provisions of modern world terminology that can be considered accepted by the majority of leading experts in order to use them as a solid basis for further research aimed at developing and clarifying the existing theory, searching for relationships and laws of development of the special vocabulary of the modern Chinese language.

The actualization of terminological studies is also due to the goal set by the governments of the SCO (Shanghai Cooperation Organization) countries to harmonize international cooperation within the educational space of the SCO. Such cooperation

promotes effective scientific and educational cooperation between universities, academic institutions and other terminological organizations.

In the spring of 2009, in accordance with the decision of the Academic Council of the Trans-Baikal State Humanitarian and Pedagogical University. N. G. Chernyshevsky (ZabGGPU) on the basis of the Agreement between ZabGGPU them. N. G. Chernyshevsky (Chita, Russian Federation) and the Institute of Terminology of Heilongjiang University (Harbin, China) created an international center for terminological research to conduct scientific research and educational work in the field of the general theory of terminology, private terminologies of individual branches of knowledge, special vocabulary.

The relevance of these joint studies in the field of terminology is due to a number of objective and subjective factors. Among the significant factors, one should name, first of all, the geographical factor - the close proximity and traditional partnership of universities in the field of science and education.

Based on the integration of the scientific and pedagogical potential of the Institute of Terminology of Heilongjiang University and the Russian one, fundamental and applied scientific research will be carried out, new programs and methods will be developed that develop and combine fundamental scientific research and the educational educational process.

The creation of such a center will ensure the interaction of Russian and Chinese universities with leading academic research institutions in Russia and China to develop the research potential of universities.

The International Terminology Center will be engaged in the preparation and development of joint scientific projects and educational programs for terminological support of Russian-Chinese cooperation both within the framework of the SCO and in bilateral international cooperation.

The results of joint research will make a certain contribution to solving urgent problems of lexicology and terminology, especially in the framework of modern Chinese, given the fact that such studies are the first attempt at a multidimensional linguistic analysis of the terminology of modern Chinese, and also that the terminology of the Chinese language is one of the least researched problems in modern Sinology.

LITERATURE

1. GrinevGrinevich S. V. Terminology: textbook. allowance for students. higher textbook establishments. M.: Ed. Center "Academy", 2008. 304p.

2. Ivanov VV Terminology and borrowings in modern Chinese. M.: Nauka, 1973. 135 p.

3. I. D. Klenin and V. F. Shchichko. Lexicology and phraseology of the Chinese language: a course of lectures. M., 1978.

4. Reformatsky A. A. What is the term and terminology? Questions of terminology. M.: Nauka, 1961. 324 p.

5. A. V. Superanskaya, N. V. Podolskaya, and N. V. Vasil’eva. General terminology: Questions of theory. M.: Nauka, 1989. 243p.

6. Superanskaya A.V., N.V. Podolskaya, N.V. Vasiliev. General terminology: Terminological activity. 3rd edition. M.: Izd - vo LKI, 2008. 288 p.

7. Semenas A. L. Lexis of the Chinese language. Moscow: AST: East West, 2007. 284 p.

8. Shelov S. D. Term. Terminology. Terminological definitions. St. Petersburg: Philological fact of St. Petersburg State University, 2003. 280 p.

9. Frolova O.P. Word formation in the terminological vocabulary of the modern Chinese language. Novosibirsk: Nauka, 1981. 132 p.

10. w/^1^025-270Sh, 2007^0

11. Wu Likun. On affix term formation in Chinese // Collection of materials of the scientific conference "Scientific and technical terminology". M.: VNIKI, 2002. Issue. 2.

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L. Yu. Papyan

moving the point of view in the novel a. Mr. Malyshkina "people from the outback"

The scientific article analyzes the movement of the point of view. This is important not only for understanding a particular work, but has an outlet in the theory of the text.

Key words: point of view, organization of narration, methods of subjectification.

viewpoint transition in a. g. malyshkin's novel "people from the backwoods"

The author of the article analyzes the viewpoint transition. It is important not only for understanding the definite literary work but it is also connected with the text theory.

Key words: viewpoint, narrative organization, subjectivation techniques.

During the deployment of the novel by A. G. Malyshkin "People from the Outback", first published in 1937, almost in each of its relatively independent parts, mobility, variability of the point of view in the image is observed.

objects. At first, everything in the text - both the heroes and the world around them - are depicted from the side, or, more precisely, from such a point of view, which is located, as it were, above everyone, “from above”. This point of view, obviously, should be attributed to the image of an omniscient author, because it is formed most often by a repeated verbal series that dominates the depiction of literary reality.

Thus, the beginning of a chapter or sub-theme of a novel is quite often revealed from the standpoint of omniscience. You can see the similar nature of the construction of the text, for example, in the following fragment.

At the barracks from seven in the morning, three or four trucks were bubbling in the cold. In the darkness, buttoning up on the move, the barracks occupants rushed out of every door in a race, clinging to each car like a shaggy ball. Whoever kept up, standing or sitting, flew happily over the snows to the very place of work - to the railway tracks, where the unloading was teeming with the fair. But every time Zhurkin was confused by the damned fur coat, the hooks did not fall into the loops, the collar did not break, and where can you run fast in such a bell! Tishka, although dressed, out of consent, was waiting for Uncle Ivan - his protection. Both jumped out almost last and somehow pressed, with a general curse, onto an overflowing truck. The assistant driver in charge of boarding didn't talk much. "Go!" - he shouted to the driver, tore off the excess, from the belated hats and threw them to the ground. While they were jumping off and picking up, the truck rattled already behind the bridge and then became smaller ....

To speak of omniscience as a principle of organization

WU, insight, awareness. Fine Pearl uses this word to mean Illumination, Enlightenment, etc., thus it is the equivalent of Japanese satori; however, the fact that he uses still other terms for enlightenment, such as Bodhi and Anuttara-Samyak-Sambodhi, as well as some Chinese translations of these terms, makes me think that the original illumination, which is the real purpose of this book, although identical in nature with Supreme Enlightenment, it may differ from it in degree or immutability. The common Japanese satori also means something less than Supreme Enlightenment. In some places Pearl Lovely also uses LT in the less elevated sense of "awaken" and "become instantly aware" and so on. I have used the words Awakening, Illumination, or Enlightenment wherever VU is used in its basic meaning, and Indian words with the same meaning as Bodhi wherever they appear in the text.

DAO, way or way. In this book, it is not used in its precise Taoist sense, such as the Power or Spirit that governs and encompasses the universe, except in the dialogues where the Taoist speaks; but is often used abstractly to refer to the Way of the Buddhas, the Way of Enlightenment, the Way of Zen, etc. It is also used in a more specific sense to refer to a method, manner, or path.

KYUN, shunya, shunyata, empty, emptiness, vacuum, immaterial, immateriality. This is a concept fundamental to all Mahayana Buddhism, although its precise definitions vary according to each school or sect. According to the Chan School, only the mind is real. It is a void not at all in the sense that it is a vacuum, but in the sense that it does not have its own characteristics and therefore cannot be perceived by the senses as something that has a shape, size, color, etc. Phenomena are empty because they are all temporary creations of the MIND, which has a wonderful ability to produce within itself all kinds of types of phenomena. As mental creatures they are naturally empty or insubstantial.

BLUE, mind, heart. The term appears constantly in the text, sometimes in the meaning of "his mind", "your mind", etc., and sometimes in the meaning of MIND, which is, in fact, a synonym for Reality, the Absolute, etc. It is also used to indicate the purpose of using the mind, roughly in the sense of "think", "know", "be aware", etc. Therefore, it can mean MIND, someone's mind, mental processes, thinking, thoughts, etc.; or have a basic Chinese meaning - "heart"; moreover, even when it is used in the sense of "mind", it largely implies the meaning that Westerners understand by the word "heart". It has shades and tones close in meaning to such words as the subconscious, the mind that works on a subconscious level, and (so to speak) the soul. The hieroglyph Sin can sometimes suggest several meanings at the same time; the usual omission of any personal pronoun in the Chinese text is always intended to establish an identity between "our minds" and MIND.

XING, PENG XING, ZI XING, original nature, own nature, personal nature. We are taught that we all have an identical nature, the nature of emptiness (undifferentiated immateriality). When we are Illuminated, we experience our own nature as such; we understand that we do not have and probably cannot have any other nature, and yet it is our own, not in the sense of mine or yours, but in the sense of belonging to all. Here the traces of selfishness stretching from the past give way to boundless compassion for those who still think that there are things that must be gained or lost and who therefore fight against "you" or "him" for the sake of "I", which is no different from the contrasted "you" or "he".

TIN or SANVEY or SAMOTI, samadhi, the contemplation of our original nature - the Eternally Existing Mind. However, where TIN means the second of the three methods of training—discipline, concentration, and wisdom—I have translated TIN as dhyana.

THI and YUN, essence and manifestation. THI is the universal substance of the mind, formless, immaterial, imperceptible. YUN is its function, through it all kinds of phenomena are created or can be created in response to the requests of sentient people. When a person asks for this YUN, he can freely use his mind; he becomes able to be fully aware of everything, remaining unstained by anything.

FA, Dharma, or dharma. Dharma can be used as a synonym for the Absolute, Law of the Universe, Buddhist Doctrine, Right Belief, Right Action, etc. Without the capital "D", dharma means any or any kind of phenomena - things, ideas, forces, constituent parts of things, infinitesimal "moments" that combine to form one moment of thought, units like atoms, of which, as Theravada Buddhists believe , phenomena consist, etc. to infinity. Fine Pearl uses the term FA in some of the meanings indicated, as well as in its purely Chinese sense, as a method or as a kind of suffix that can sometimes be omitted. In general, throughout this book, I have used a capital "D" where the word meant something like the Universal Law of the Buddha's Doctrine, and a small "d" where it meant something like "things". Where necessary, I have inserted the English translation in brackets.

CHAN, or CHAN-NA, dhyana or meditation, meaning abstaining from wrong thinking, i.e. from pluralistic or dualistic thinking, etc.

CHAN TING, dhyana, samadhi.

Chi and Hui, Jnana and Prajna, pure awareness and insightful wisdom. Hui is sometimes used in the sense of knowing and understanding things in the usual sense of these words, sometimes in the sense of Prajna, the Highest Wisdom, which reveals to us our own nature, the emptiness (immateriality) of which is real, and at the same time makes it possible for us to realize the smallest differences in form. The Beautiful Pearl sometimes uses the Indian word "Prajna" in the Chinese text, in some cases where it becomes one of the many synonyms, reflecting different aspects of the Absolute, Reality.

CHIEH TIO, liberation. Fine Pearl uses it as a synonym for Illumination, or rather to denote the natural result of Illumination; it happens suddenly, just like water, which, after being gradually heated, suddenly boils.

SHEN and FANG FU, saints and ordinary (ordinary) people. These terms are used respectively to designate those people who are and are not Enlightened, that is, Buddhas and sentient beings, but it is clear that there is no real difference between them, since they are all of the same nature; the only difference is that SHEN, or saints, are aware of their own nature, while FANG FU, or ordinary beings, have not yet realized it.

GLOSSARY OF SANSCRIT TERMS

(Wherever Fine Pearl explicitly deviates from the meanings given below, they can be understood from the text.)

Avidya, primordial ignorance, ignorance of our true nature.

ANUTTARA-SAMYAK-SAMBODHI, see SAMYAK-SAM-BODHI.

ASAMSKRTA, not belonging to the impermanent, wu wei.

ASURA, the same as a Titan or a fallen angel.

ACHARYA, a learned, erudite person - an expression of respect.

BODHI, Enlightenment, complete Illumination.

BODHIKAYA, the Body of the Absolute, seen as the result of Enlightenment.

BODHIMANDALA, the place or realm where Enlightenment can be achieved.

BODHISATTVA, (1) a future Buddha, (2) a spiritual person who refused to immediately enter Nirvana in order to help others enter it, (3) a sincere follower of the Way.

Buddha (1) A person who has attained Enlightenment, (2) a synonym for the Buddhakaya or the Absolute.

BUDDAKAYA, the Absolute, regarded as the state of Buddhahood.

BHUTATHATA, the Absolute considered as the universal womb.

VAJRA, diamond, very hard; used in the meaning of indestructible, real, ultimate.

Vajrayana, a school of Mahayana Buddhism, prevalent in Tibet and Mongolia, is widely known in the West as Lamaism, where its doctrines and practices are largely misunderstood.

Vinaya, the discipline practiced by Buddhist monks.

VIRYA, diligence.

GATHA, verse, usually sacred.

DANA, (1) alms or gifts that are given for religious or charitable reasons, (2) concession.

DEVAKANYA, a group of minor female deities.

DHARMA, (1) Buddha Doctrine, (2) Universal Law, (3) method or path, (4) entity of any type - thing, idea, concept, etc.

DHARMA-DHATU, the Absolute, i.e. Dharma-Sphere.

Dharmakaya, the Dharma-Body, or the Absolute, regarded as the Ultimate Reality with which the Buddhas or Enlightened Men are one and inseparable.

DHYANA, a deep abstraction into which wrong thoughts cannot penetrate, is translated into Chinese as Chan or Chan-na and into Japanese as Zen, from which the Chan (Zen) School of Buddhism takes its name.

KARMA, the causal process that relates each action to antecedent and concomitant causes and to the results that must follow from it.

FLASH, pollution, passion, etc.

KSHANTI, restraint.

Mahaparinirvana, the ultimate Nirvana. (Nirvana can be reached in this life; the final Nirvana follows after death).

Mahayana, one of the two great divisions of Buddhism; it is common in the more northern countries of Asia - China, Tibet, Japan, etc.

NIRMANAKAYA, the Body of Transformation, in which Buddhas and Bodhisattvas assume properties similar to those of ordinary people in order to liberate such people.

NIRVANA, the final state that people enter when they become enlightened, they are no longer bound by the awareness of false ego.

PARAMITA, means of reaching the far shore, by which one enters Nirvana; there are only six of them needed for this purpose.

PRAGNA, supreme wisdom, transcendental wisdom, etc. The term is also used as a synonym for the universal "substance".

PRATIEKA BUDDHA, a person who attains Enlightenment and goes no further to preach the Dharma.

PRETA, a hungry spirit, irritated with false hopes, brought by harmful karma into that sad but temporary state.

SAMADHI, the state of complete withdrawal of the mind from the environment, the result of a perfectly performed meditation; it consists in the pure contemplation of our original nature or mind.

SAMBODHI, Supreme Enlightenment.

SAMBHOGAKAYA, the body in which Enlightened people enjoy the rewards of liberation from worldly things and in which they can appear before other people in an unreal form.

SAMSARA, the realm of relativity, transience and illusion as opposed to the permanence and stillness of Nirvana.

SAMSKRTA, referring to the impermanent, yu wei.

SAMYAK SAMBODHI, Supreme Enlightenment.

SIDDHI, supernatural power.

SKANDHA, the personality component; there are five of them.

SUTRA, a book containing the real teachings of the Buddha. (This term is only occasionally used to refer to holy book, the authorship of which is not directly attributed to the Buddha).

TATHAGATA, (1) the term used for Buddha, literally, Thus-Coming, He-Who-Is-So, He-Who-Is-Suchness; (2) Suchness of all Dharmas.

TRIPITAKA, the complete collection of Buddhist scriptures.

Upasaka, a lay person who lives according to certain strict rules.

Hinayana, one of two divisions of Buddhism; distributed in southeast Asia.

Shastra, a sacred treatise, as well as a commentary on a sutra.

SHILA, instructions, morality observed by Buddhists.

SHRAVAKA, a listener is a person who approaches the Dharma as a result of listening to what it preaches.

Zenith, nadir and eight compass points.

Liberation from Samsara, the circle of endless births and deaths, thanks to the entry into Nirvana. However, the higher teaching of the Mahayana, as will be seen from this book, indicates that Nirvana and Samsara are one, and that the Illumined Man sees them as such.

Chinese words "tong wu", the first of which means "sudden" and the second is identical Japanese word"satori".

Deceptive thoughts are thoughts that create the duality of opposites, such as love and hate, the differences between self and other, and all the innumerable thought processes that proceed from unillumined minds.

The Pure Land (Sukhawati) is the immediate goal of countless Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese Buddhists, who envision it as Buddha Land, created as a result of the compassionate vow made by the Buddha Amida for the salvation of all sentient beings who believe in it. In that land, people not yet prepared for Nirvana are being prepared by the Buddha for this ultimate stage. There are other Buddhists for whom the Pure Land is a symbol of the Dharmakaya, the purified mind, and so on. Although some Western Buddhists have written with disdain about the "pure land" form of Buddhism, there is ample evidence that its methods often lead to Illumination. The symbols he uses signify the same truths taught by the School of Zen and offer an easier approach for some types of people. The constant repetition of the name of Buddha Amida, along with proper mental practice, is just another way to achieve full concentration and enter into samadhi. Dr. D. T. Suzuki and other prominent Zen authorities have testified to this.

Original nature, own nature, own nature (pen xing and zi xing) mean the same thing. The omission in Chinese of words such as "your", "his", etc. helps the reader to remember that the self-nature of all sentient beings is the same.

The six states of a mortal being, or the six realms, are birth in heaven (gods), birth as asuras (demon demigods), birth as humans, animals, pretas (hungry ghosts), or birth in the hells. All such things are temporary conditions, though of varying duration, and none of these conditions is the true goal of the Buddhists, for even the inhabitants of the highest heavens are in danger of being thrown down again by the turning of the Wheel of Samsara.

Samsara is said to be composed of three types of worlds - worlds of desire such as this one; worlds of form where there is no desire; and worlds of formlessness.

Buddhakaya (Buddha's Body) - another name for Dharma-kaya - the undivided "Body", in which the Buddhas and all other beings appear to be one with the Absolute. All of us have this "Body" but are not aware of it until enlightenment.

The act of perception, being a manifestation of one's own nature, continues regardless of the presence of objects of perception.

"Wu jan" can be translated as pure, unpolluted, unstained, etc. I prefer the more literal and figurative term "stainless" because it lends itself so well to the mirror surface analogy. A mirror can reflect all kinds of forms and still remain spotless, for it is completely indifferent to what it reflects. Our minds, as they cleanse themselves, also become immune to stains. It must be added that, from the point of view of the Buddhists, a stain is a stain, whether it comes from what we call good or from what we call evil.

The Diamond Body is another name for the Buddhakaya - that "Body" which symbolizes the unity of one's own nature.

This refers to the original ignorance, the cause of all our wanderings in the circle of Samsara, in which it hides from us the fact of our Buddha Nature and leads us into the duality of love and hate, good and evil, existence and non-existence, etc. Illumination means dispelling the darkness of this ignorance.

See note 10.

A brief meaning of the words "ti" and "yong" ("essence" and "manifestation") is given in the list of Chinese words of special difficulty, which is given after these notes. These two words are of great importance for the understanding of Ch'an (Zen). "Essence" is often compared to a lamp, and manifestation to its light; the former would be useless if it did not manifest itself by producing light; the latter would not exist without the former. As already explained, "essence" means the incomprehensible and indefinable Reality, which is the true nature of everyone, and "manifestation" means its limitless ability to produce any kind of energy, form, etc.

Here and there in this text I have sometimes translated "tin" as "samadhi", but the trinity "chi tin hui" is usually translated as "discipline, concentration and wisdom".

"Purity" means something much more than moral purity, which is usually meant by this word in English language; it means freedom from ALL attachments and distinctions to anything; it would be corrupted by the attachment to good as much as by the attachment to evil.

When memory and dreams are cut off, past and future cease to exist. The present, of course, exists in the strict sense, in comparison with the other two, but it is not the PRESENT, outside of thoughts about the past and the future. The state of mind of the Illumined Person is independent of temporal relationships.

Literally, the "realization" of the patient ability to endure the Eternally Existing "anutpattikadharmakshanti". This Sanskrit Mahayana term means "the patient capacity to endure, entailing immersion in the unperturbed Reality beyond birth and death." The Prajnaparamita Sutra defines it as "unwavering adherence to an unwavering faith in Bhutathatathu, which is free from relativity and is not subject to creation or destruction."

Dharmakaya is that side of the Buddhas (and, one need only realize it, understand) sentient beings, in which they do not differ from the Absolute. Hence it cannot be divided into five kinds. Five different names, given in this text, are the names of one Dharmakaya, which are given depending on five different manifestations or five points of view.

Dharma-Nature is the usual translation of the Sanskrit term Dharmata, which refers to the nature underlying all things, and is therefore closely related in meaning, if not identical with the word Bhutathatathata. This vital Mahayana concept seems hardly known to Hinayana Buddhism.

This must, of course, mean the Dharmakaya, pure and simple, which is no longer looked at from different points of view.

Devakanaya, or Apsara, is a type of minor goddess gifted with a beautiful voice.

The three poisons that are created by primordial ignorance are desire, anger or passion, and the individual's ignorance of his true nature. From these three poisons arise in turn all those thoughts or actions that bind us firmly with the Samsaric Wheel of rebirth.

Buddhists who have turned away from the world and seek refuge in emptiness aspire to a state that is not as high as the state followed by the followers of Chan (Zen), Vajrayana and some other schools, a state that does not require withdrawal from the world, but perceives the world and everything else as Nirvana. This implies the calm contemplation of a stream of ever-changing forms, accompanied by the knowledge that none of them is real (nothing to be perceived) and a state of mind impervious to the possibility of being stained.

Those. not with minds like blocks of wood or stone, but with minds free from making distinctions between this and that, free from concepts, notions, judgments, evaluations, likes, dislikes, and everything else.

In the Chinese text, the word "chao" is used both in the meaning of "reflect" in the first analogy, and in the meaning of "shine" in the second.

Maitreya is the name of a Bodhisattva who will become a Buddha and will instruct the beings of the era immediately following ours.

The doctrine of destruction, which presupposes a previous birth or creation of a destroyed thing, is in opposition to Buddhists of all schools. The waves of the sea rise and fall without any addition or subsidence from the sea. Forms may come and go, but the marvelous essence of reality neither increases nor decreases; nothing is created or born; nothing stops existing.

Ignorance and all that flows from it is exhaustible, while wisdom and reality, which becomes visible in the light of wisdom, are inexhaustible.

Harmful phenomena mean those phenomena which are causally determined and therefore transient. Beneficial phenomena are unconditioned and permanent.

The leaking mind is the mind that is constantly losing the truth that it cannot contain, that is, the deluded mind that is still holding on to the Samsaric circle. The term "leakage" can also mean an outlet, ie. those reactions which are the result of the mind being stained with attachments.

See note 17.

Mahayanists often use the term "Buddha" as being more or less synonymous with the Absolute, and it is in this sense that the Beautiful Pearl uses it; but here the word is used in the more widespread sense of the Enlightened Man who, after Illuminations, preaches to sentient beings.

"Teaching" means preaching the Dharma according to the Scriptures; "Transmission" means the preaching or communication of intuitive understanding of truths revealed by direct knowledge, and therefore independent of the Scriptures. In some cases the Transmission may take place in silence, as with Lord Buddha when he picked a flower and showed it to his disciples, after which Kashyapa, traditionally considered the first Chan (Zen) patriarch, expressed with a smile his understanding of the truth conveyed by this gesture.

"Yu wei" and "wu wei" are terms originally used by Taoist sages; they are very difficult to translate. Activity and non-action (in the sense of intentional activity) are words that imply only one aspect of their entire meaning. Here they are used in the broad meaning of "worldly" and "transcendent", i.e. "pertaining to the realm of transient phenomena" and "pertaining to the eternal reality."

The Buddha attained Nirvana during his Enlightenment and Parinirvana (Highest Nirvana) at the time he left his physical body acquired before Enlightenment. The whole passage means that from the beginning of his search until the end of his life, the Lord Buddha never denied the world of phenomena and did not consider his attainment of Nirvana to be any kind of attainment; for since Nirvana and Samsara are two aspects of the same ever-existing reality, there is nothing to deny and nothing to achieve - Enlightenment is the experience of the mind that discovers who we have always been from the very beginning.

Some Buddhists believe in real hells as states in which people with a lot of bad karma suffer until they are free from their (bad) karma, but they never see them as places of eternal torment! Others see the word "hell" as a figurative expression for all the suffering in this life or any other that is the result of bad karma.

The words translated "creation and destruction" are "whose huayi", which are translations of the Sanskrit terms "vivarta and samvarta". In the Mahayana, the cycle of existence has four stages - formation (vivarta), existence (vivarta-siddha), destruction (samvarta) and emptiness (samvarta-siddha).

Those. five types of consciousness associated with our bodily senses, intellects (manovijnana), discriminating consciousness (klista-manovijnana), which leads to thinking in terms of one's own and that of others, etc., and the treasury of consciousness (alapavijnana), from which come seeds or germs of other types of consciousness.

"Trikaya" means the Triple Body of the Buddha (and possibly all sentient people). The Dharmakaya is that aspect of the Buddha in which he is one with the Absolute; The Sambhogakaya, or Body of Reward, is that spiritual state in which, though not specifically, the Buddha is seen as having individual characteristics (like a dream image); The Nirmanakaya, or Body of Transformation, is a body as concrete as the bodies of other sentient people, which the Buddha uses to complete the liberation of others. Naturally, the differences between one body and another are only relative.

"Correct feeling about the object being contemplated" is one of the many interpretations of samadhi.

"Mostly inconstant" is a translation of the difficult term "wu chu pen". Since objects have no individual nature of their own, they are impermanent; they appear temporarily, only in response to arising concomitant causes, and cease when those causes cease. Thus, everything takes root in impermanence, including the concept of Trikaya. The true essence and nature of the Trikaya refers to the permanent, in which the concepts of "three" and "bodies" are not valid.

The real Buddha-Body, of course, is not a BODY at all and is not divisible into two or three. It is Reality, Formlessness, Unconditioned, Dharmakaya with the other two kaya(s) imbibed by it.

In fact, we have never been separated from the real Buddhakaya, but we cannot realize this as long as we are blinded by illusion.

Here the term "Buddha" is synonymous with "Buddakaya". Absolute.

See note 36.

The five skandhas are said to be the constituents of what appears to be our ego. Their Sanskrit names are rupa, vedana, sanyana, samskara and vijnana. Form means any form, mental or material, that enters the field of our consciousness. Sensation means instantaneous awareness of those forms by which we "take them into ourselves." Then follows the perception of their different nature, which leads to impulses (acts of will) based on our assessment of each form as good or bad, pleasant or unpleasant. Awareness is the name given to the sum of those mental activities and individual mental characteristics that emerge and remain as a result of this process.

Those. those influences that fan the passions are gain and loss, slander and exaltation, praise and ridicule, sadness and joy.

On the advice of my friend, the late Poon Indat, I corrected what looked like a mistake in the printed block by changing "lin shou-chun shen" to "lin-na shou-shen". In any case, the meaning is quite clear from the context.

See note 7.

The list of ten vices varies slightly in different Mahayana texts. However, there are always three vices of the body, four of speech, and three of the mind. Differences are usually found in the category of speech defects.

The negative approach to the ten virtues indicates that when the higher stages of the path are reached, clinging to virtue is just as much of an obstacle as clinging to vice.

This refers to the middle of that place in the book, which (indicated by the number 7.

Those. thoughts concerning the Buddha, Dharma, Sangha, (rules of conduct, alms and merit. Although some (Masters advise their students to allow those thoughts as (as often as possible), eventually they must be discarded (along with all other types of conceptual thinking.

Refraining from thinking does not mean dullness, (like a trance, but means a brilliantly clear state (of the mind, in which the details of all phenomena are realized, however, without (judgment or attachment.

In other words, we have always, from the very beginning, been potential Buddhas.

The difference between the Illumined man and the unillumined is not a difference in nature, but only a success or failure in understanding the nature common to all.

According to the Mahayana, Nirvana and Samsara (the state in which we are subject to the contamination of the klesha) are inseparable. Therefore, there is no such thing as leaving Samsara in order to enter Nirvana.

"Samadhi of universality", if translated more literally, would be the samadhi of one action. In this one action, the possibilities of body, speech and mind are combined. So the general idea is the idea of ​​sticking in one direction. This is samadhi leading to the realization that the nature of all Buddhas is identical.

Perception does not stop, only there is no longer any separation between the perceiver and the process of perception, or between the process of perception and the object of perception.

The expression "the rest of the Buddhas" reminds us that if we could see ourselves as we really are, we would know that we are also Buddhas.

Bodhikaya, Buddhakaya and Dharmakaya are synonyms, any of which can be used in the most appropriate context. Literally, Bodhikaya means the Body of Enlightenment.

Kali Yuga is the name given to the current era, namely the era of the decline of our understanding of the Dharma.

Rahula is the son of Buddha Shakyamuni, who is sometimes considered the founder of esoteric Buddhism.

"Ultimate" here and in previous places is used in the sense of "absolute" - a term Pearl Lovely uses sparingly for fear that it will be understood as opposed to "relative" and thus create dualistic thinking.

Here it is a reminder that the void is not nothing, but a marvelous entity, devoid of its own characteristics, and yet capable of manifesting in any kind of form.

This is a reference to those passages in the Diamond and Lotus Sutras that speak of Buddhas who prophesy the future attainment of Buddhahood by their disciples. For example, Buddha Dipamkara predicted the attainment of Buddhahood by Shakyamuni.

A reference to the fundamental Chan doctrine taken from the Diamond Sutra, which states that the Tathagata achieved nothing by his Enlightenment and that he had no Dharma to preach. This means that Enlightenment, in exchange for a change in our state, reveals to us what we have always been; and that the inner truth of the Dharma cannot be put into words. Therefore, the Tathagata used relative truths for the sake of unenlightened people.

Chien Chow, now called Chien Ou, is located in Fuiken Province.

"Go and rest" is a Ch'an idiom meaning "you should focus your thoughts on rest." The Ch'an wording contains the idea of ​​"Go to yourself", so the saying is a direct reference to the mind.

The moon symbolizes Enlightenment, and the water in the pond symbolizes one's own nature. The meaning of this is "How can one catch Enlightenment?"

Here, as many times, the word "Tathagata" is used with a double meaning, or at least with a meaning that has one of two interpretations, since they are equivalent to each other: 1 - Buddha Shakyamuni (Gautama) as the embodiment of Suchness; 2 - Suchness itself or the Absolute.

The Master points directly to Mind, which is all-encompassing and omnipresent.

Fa Ming confused the Chinese equivalent of the word Siddham (Sanskrit alphabet) with a term meaning Sarvathasiddha (a person who realized every desire, also called Shakyamuni).

There are three sections of the Buddhist Canon: 1 - a sermon attributed to the Buddha himself; 2 - monastic rules; 3 - commentaries, philosophical and metaphysical works composed by others.

The question was calculated to catch the Beautiful Pearl, as there is not one in ten thousand Buddhists who knows or attaches importance to the answer. Amitabha Buddha is seen as a symbol of Infinite Compassion and Infinite Light; he has rarely been treated as a historical figure. Pearl Pretty's immediate response testifies to his great erudition. The Ch'an Masters did not go without books from the very beginning, just as some people in the west appear to have a penchant for contemplation. They cannot do without books when they need the right amount of prior knowledge to transcend the scriptures by direct experiential knowledge. Not surprisingly, Fa Ming was amazed at his unexpected display of erudition.

The three poisons are: (wrong) desire, anger and ignorance. The three general commandments are: 1 - a formal set of five, eight and ten instructions, common to all Buddhist schools; 2 - everything that needs to be done out of compassion; 3 - everything that needs to be done for the sake of the liberation of feeling people. 2 and 3 can also be seen as a continuation of each of the ten instructions in 1. For example, by not killing, we show compassion and do not interfere in life leading to liberation.

The Northern Chan School, which declined in China several centuries after the establishment of the Chan School, believed in gradual Enlightenment. The Southern Chan School, also known as the Hui Neng School or the Southern School, emphasizes the sudden nature of Enlightenment, and this is precisely the central thesis of the Beautiful Pearl teaching.

When an Illuminated person eats or sleeps, unlike the layman who allows himself the pleasure of making distinctions, he does not distinguish anything.

This refers to people who know the sutras by heart but neglect practice and training.

The mind IS the Buddha, but we must not CLIP to anything, for clinging to truth draws us into the dualism of its exclusive opposite. Those who have achieved silent recognition of their own nature do not retain the concept of the existence or non-existence of this or that. The term "devils", which is stronger than all the terms used to describe other categories of misguided people, perhaps means that getting so close to the truth and then going astray is worse than just being stupid and ignorant.

A Ch'an idiom referring to those who are indifferent to external (forms) and do not seek them.

Buddha, Dharma and Sangha are taken together to mean Buddha, Doctrine and Monastic Order; for some they are the designation of the Absolute, the Universal Law and the order of Bodhisattvas and Arhats; but to the initiated, like the Beautiful Pearl, they signify the Three Aspects of the One Truth.

This is the main sutra of the Hua Yen (Kegon) School.

The meaning of the Chan idiom is: "Investigate what makes you stay here so long; go and take care of your minds!"

Those. just go and focus your thoughts on peace.

Literally: "... the Gate of Prajna, which reveals the emptiness of the three-wheeled condition of all alms (dana)."

The Single Expression is the Buddha's Expression, as opposed to the three Shravakas, Pratyeka Buddhas and Bodhisattvas.

Those. I have given up all attachments to being somewhere, or my mind does not stick to anything - so where can I be able to gather people?

If he understood himself, he would thus divide his indivisible whole into subject and object. The master did his best to teach the visitor, but the visitor was unable to extract a deep meaning from his words.

In the Vimalakirti Nirdesha Sutra, this is related to the case when Subhuti, one of the Buddha's disciples, knocked on Vimalakirti's door and asked him for food, Apsaka says the same words to teach his visitor. Usually Buddhist monks avoid heretics in order to keep themselves from drowning in heresy; they praise those who give alms and consider them masters of "spheres of happiness"; they cling to the idea that those who donate to monks will never fall into the three vicious states of existence; they honor the Buddha and protect the Dharma; and they join the Order in the hope of achieving liberation. On a simple level of relativity, all these ideas and activities are wonderful, but they are relativity. The development of a universal mind, which alone can enable them to achieve their goal, is beyond such dualities. Vimalakirti's words mean that he considers Subhuti advanced enough to begin to rise above all concepts involving duality; for otherwise he will never reach the goal in his search for Bodhi. The six heretics are the six senses; although they constantly mislead us, we should not run away from them to find the Absolute somewhere else. In other words, we must realize the Absolute from the very midst of relativity and opposites.

Those. because of attachment to the reality of the ego and its objects. The question was asked with reference to what was said in that part of the text, which is indicated under the number 19 of the "Necessary Gateway to Truth."

After the ascension of the prince of the State of Chi, the minister appointed by him ruled the people so badly that the situation quickly deteriorated. The new minister appointed in his place at first scolded the prince with words, about which here in question, and then served him faithfully and returned prosperity to the country.

A reference to a passage from the Vimalakirti Nirdesh Sutra is "Manjushri said to Vimalakirti, 'We've all been talking about entering the non-dual Dharma Gate to Enlightenment. Good Man, right now you are shedding light on the Entrance of Bodhisattvas to the non-dual Dharma Gate. Vimalakirti remained silent. Then Manjushri praised him, saying: “Excellent! Excellent! That which cannot be expressed in spoken or written words is the true entrance to the non-dual Dharma Gate."

There are ten stages by which Bodhisattvas go to Buddhahood.

The Vinaya Master discerned and could not understand what those who realized the Wisdom of the Buddha understand.

Asamkheyya kalpa means innumerable eternities. It is sometimes said that a Bodhisattva needs three of them to develop into a Buddha.

This meditation corresponds to the "Perfect Teaching" of the Tien-Thai School and is taken from the Nagarjuna Shastra of the Prajnaparamita Sutra: it explains the doctrine taught in this "One Mind and Three Aspects of Wisdom" shastra. The practice is for those with sharp roots ( high degree spirituality). It teaches that the contemplation of one aspect of wisdom implies the simultaneous contemplation of all three of its aspects. The three characteristics of illusory existence—creation, maintenance, and destruction—transfer in this way into the three aspects of wisdom. The same result is achieved through the Tien-Thai triple meditation training on emptiness, the unreal, and the middle. This "Perfect Teaching" of the Tien-Thai School is opposed to the gradual methods of those schools which distinguish between different aspects and stages of Truth.

Chi Che - Fourth Patriarch of the Tien-Thai School.

The questions show that the questioner has gone so far in understanding that immaterial things can be big and small at the same time; otherwise the second question would not have followed the answer to the first; but Pearl Lovely wanted to destroy all duality inherent in such thinking. Prajna is omnipresent, but it is not thought of in terms of space.

That sutra relates that Upasaka Vimalakirti asked several Bodhisattvas who visited him to speak about the means by which they entered the non-dual Dharma Gate. When they explained how they did this by destroying dualistic concepts, such as those that create "I" and "other than me", Manjushri expressed the opinion that the entrance to that door is that there should be "no words, no speech , no guidance, no knowledge, and no questions, no answers regarding all dharmas (phenomena, doctrines, etc.), whatever it may be.” When Vimalakirti reached his turn, he remained silent, not saying anything. Thus Bodhisattvas used words and speech to bring out non-duality or Absolute Reality; Manchusri revealed it through the absence of words and speech; thus, by revealing it, keeping complete silence, Vimalakirti destroyed the duality of words and speech, on the one hand, and the concept of their absence, on the other.

Pen ti (essence) and chi jung (manifestation of purpose) are terms that mean roughly the same as (essence) and jung (destination).

Here is presented the Chan teaching, which consists first of combining two names into one indivisible whole, and then in the destruction of the concept of One, allowing one to overcome the last subtle attachment in order to realize the Absolute, which is neither one nor many.

The name of this commentary comes from the name of the monastery where Tao Yin, the commentator, lived.

The three insights are opportunities that arise from the Buddha's universal insight that everything that happened in past lives is happening now and will happen in the future. These are different lists of six transcendental possibilities - these are those siddhis that arise as a by-product of continuous right meditation, but which some people mistakenly (and riskily) choose for the main goal.

There are many stories of divine responses; their goal is to persuade people to recite the sutras regularly and practice good deeds.

In China, according to the knowledge of Feng Shui, or geomancy, the position of ancestral graves significantly influenced the future of descendants.

The dry, unfertilized stage of wisdom (i.e., unfertilized by the Buddha Truth), otherwise called worldly wisdom, is the first of the ten stages common to the three Means of Expression.

There are some Mahayanists who shun the world as a manifestation of evil and who develop forms of meditation that lead to what is very much like emptying the mind.

Master destroyed the dualities of "do" and "not do", "right" and "wrong", in order to reveal the Absolute Dharma-kaya, which is incomparable, incomprehensible and indivisible.

When teaching their students, Ch'an Masters usually point directly to the mind that is troubled by worldly feelings and passions, and what surrounds them. Depending on the circumstances, this was done with the help of speech, silence, gestures, expressions, etc.

Quote from the Vimalakirti Nirdesha Sutra. Vimalakirti addresses these words to Manjushri. "Fickleness" here is translated "wu chu" (non-adherence).

"The nature of the seed," or "the nature of the germ," signifies a nature that can sprout and develop from the nature that is its essence.

"Dharani" - means absolute control over good and evil passions and influences.

That. a ring of fire obtained from whirling a torch.

Those. for normal purposes.

Those. what the Master has just said about the mind that is neither inside nor outside nor in between is very clear.

Everyone's mind is essentially the mind of a Buddha and can actually achieve Buddhahood by being cleansed of worries and attachments.

The Great Sutra, or the Great Book, is another name for Mind or Wisdom.

The Sixth Indian Patriarch Michaka sang the following gatha as he delivered the Dharma to the Seventh Patriarch

Vasumitra:

No mind, no awareness

Whereas what can be realized is not Dharma.

Only when the mind became unreal,

The Dharma of all minds can be truly understood.

O.V. Josan

Orenburg State University

Scientific adviser: I.I. Prosvirkina, Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor

Chinese is becoming a very popular language to learn and may become the second most popular language (after English) in the coming decades. Chinese is one of 6 official languages United Nations. According to statistics, every fifth person in the world speaks Chinese.

In modern conditions of learning the Chinese language, the system of work to enrich vocabulary as one of the aspects of teaching a foreign language is of particular importance for students. The process of mastering a dictionary is very time-consuming and plays a huge role in the development of students' speech skills, therefore, the method of enriching students' speech when studying foreign languages, in particular Chinese, is so relevant for teachers and educators.

When working to enrich speech, it must be remembered that the vocabulary of the Chinese language has its own characteristics, which are associated with a number of factors. Firstly, the Chinese language belongs to the languages ​​of the isolating type, which is characterized by its own ways of word formation. Secondly, the Chinese word is always ambiguous. Thirdly, the meaning of a Chinese word is determined by the place of the word in the sentence, its lexical environment, as well as the presence of various kinds of service words. Fourthly, the vocabulary of the Chinese language is filled with "cultural meanings". Students, as a rule, when learning new Chinese words, associate them with the corresponding Russian words. But in different languages words are not always equivalent, which causes difficulty in enriching students' speech with Chinese words. In this regard, it is very important to choose a method for enriching students' speech when learning Chinese.

When enriching speech when learning Chinese, the student must:

a) understand and remember the word, its meanings, sound and graphic forms;

b) choose this particular word to solve a specific communicative task in a specific communication situation;

c) be able to use it in speech in combination with other words.

Thus, the enrichment of speech is not just the memorization of new words, hieroglyphs, but the awareness and assimilation of the connections between them in the language - grammatical, semantic, cultural, etc.

We propose to enrich the speech of pupils (students) with Chinese words in the following way:

The semantization into which we introduce: the representation of the hieroglyph, its phonetic sound, the disclosure of possible meanings, depending on the place in the sentence and on the “cultural fullness”;

Primary fastening;

Analysis of the word in various contexts;

Development of skills and abilities to use vocabulary in various types speech activity.

Let's take a closer look at semantization. This is a system of actions associated with the disclosure of the meaning of a word in the process of familiarization with new material. At present, science knows several methods of semantization, such as semantic definition, structural-semantic motivation, translation method, comparison with a word known to the student, visibility, context, and others. The choice of semantization method should be determined by the learning stage, age characteristics students, the specifics of the semantized vocabulary, etc.

One of the most economical in terms of time and universal in application is the transfer method. However, according to modern methodologists, it should not be the main method of semantization. This is due to the fact that literal translation with subsequent "memorization" of meanings, good knowledge of the language system and translation skills do not provide students with the practical use of languages ​​in various communication situations.

Since such a specific and narrowly focused vocabulary as economics is studied, as a rule, by students who already have a certain lexicon and knowledge of the lexical meanings of economic terms in the native language, then, in our opinion, in this situation it is possible to apply the translation method without using the lexical interpretation of the translated words. For example:

会计 - accountant 经济 - economist 资本 - capital At the same time, a practical approach to mastering grammar is very important, as a result of which the material is grouped in accordance with topics and situations that implement the content of the communication sphere chosen for learning (in this case, economic). The basis of the classes will be sentence models and texts on relevant topics. Subsequently, in order to consolidate the material covered, it is advisable to perform exercises aimed at testing the knowledge of the learned vocabulary and the correctness of its use. different types visualizations, for example, semantic maps. The compilation of such maps takes place in the classroom with the joint work of the teacher and students. Students first recall all familiar words, the teacher will supplement their list with new ones and help classify. Thus, the goal of integrating existing knowledge with new knowledge is achieved. For example:

Pictures also help visualize vocabulary:

1. Lutsenko, E.A. Lexical units of the Chinese language expressing space (on the material of the philosophical treatise "Zhuang Tzu") / E.A. Lutsenko, I.I. Prosvirkin // Bulletin of the Orenburg State University. -2013. - No. 11(160). - S. 156-161.